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61-647: Most archaeologists identify the Lugians with the Przeworsk culture , which is also associated with the Vandals , and it has been suggested that the Lugians and Vandals may have been closely related or even the same. While this culture was strongly Celtic -influenced in early Roman times, the Lugii are also sometimes regarded as Germanic , like the Vandals. They played an important role on

122-562: A brief respite for in 177 A.D. the Quadi rebelled, followed soon by their neighbours, the Marcomanni. Marcus Aurelius once again headed north to begin his second Germanic campaign ( secunda expeditio germanica ). He arrived at Carnuntum in August 178 and set out to quell the rebellion in a repeat of his first campaign, moving first against the Marcomanni and against the Quadi between 179 and 180 A.D. Under

183-401: A common cemetery, but which was separated from other micro-regions by undeveloped areas. A number of such micro-regions possibly made up a tribe, with these separated by empty space. The tribes in turn, especially if they were culturally closely related, would at times form larger structures, such as temporary alliances for waging wars, or even early statehood forms. A Przeworsk culture turn of

244-762: A crossing of the Danube. A peace treaty was signed with the Quadi and the Iazyges, while the tribes of the Hasdingi Vandals and the Lacringi became Roman allies. In 172, the Romans crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory. Although few details are known, the Romans achieved success, subjugating the Marcomanni and their allies, the Varistae or Naristi and the Cotini. This fact is evident from

305-492: A famous incident, the so-called "miracle of the rain", occurred, which was later depicted on the column of Marcus Aurelius and on coins. According to Cassius Dio, the legio XII Fulminata was hemmed in by a superior Quadi force and almost forced to surrender because of the heat and thirst. They were saved, however, by a sudden shower, which refreshed the Romans, while lightning struck the Quadi. Contemporaries and historians attributed it to divine intervention: Dio stated that it

366-632: A series of wars lasting from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against principally the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges ; there were related conflicts with several other Germanic, Sarmatian, and Gothic peoples along both sides of the whole length of the Roman Empire's northeastern European border, the river Danube . The struggle against

427-462: A settlement in Stanisławice, Bochnia County. Fields were being used for crop cultivation for a while and then as pastures, when animal excrement helped the soil regain fertility. Once iron share plows were introduced the fields were alternated between tillage and grazing. Several or more settlements made up a micro-region, within which the residents cooperated economically and buried their dead in

488-592: Is associated with the Zarubintsy culture . Scholars view the Przeworsk culture as an amalgam of a series of localized cultures. Although there is no evidence of an actual migration, the Przeworsk culture appears relatively suddenly, manifested as an adaptation of the Celtic La Tène culture technology from the southwest, and was quite distinct from the preceding Pomeranian culture and Cloche culture . To its northwest,

549-632: Is now Poland . The 12th century Chronica Polonorum by Wincenty Kadlubek mentions the alliance between the Lugii and the Romans. Ptolemy mentions the Lugi Omani (Λοῦγοι οἱ Ὀμανοί), the Lugi Diduni (Λοῦγοι οἱ Διδοῦνοι) and the Lugi Buri (Λοῦγοι οἱ Βοῦροι) located on or near the upper Vistula in Germania Magna in what is now south Poland (Book 2, Chapter 10, 4th map of Europe). Ptolemy does not mention

610-437: Is proposed by other authors is that too much weight is given to Lucian 's testimony regarding the influence of Alexander of Abonoteichos as a scapegoat for the disaster whereas it is uncertain whether Alexander was still alive by 170 and Lucian's chronology is at certain points suspect. This disaster forced Marcus to re-evaluate his priorities. Forces from the various frontiers were dispatched against Ballomar. They came under

671-515: Is sometimes known the Battle of Carnuntum . Ballomar then led the larger part of his host southwards towards Italy, while the remainder ravaged Noricum . The Marcomanni razed Opitergium ( Oderzo ) and besieged Aquileia . This was the first time that hostile forces had entered Italy since 101 BC, when Gaius Marius defeated the Cimbri . The army of praetorian prefect Titus Furius Victorinus tried to relieve

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732-563: Is uncertain, but some historians assume that the Lugians can be identified with the 'Longiones' tribe mentioned in Zosimus 's New History ( Historia Nova ), as being defeated by the Emperor Probus in year 279 in the province of Raetia near the Lygis river (usually identified with Lech river in modern Austria and Bavaria ). Another mention might be a great people of 'Lupiones-Sarmatae' shown on

793-641: The Roman legions (16 out of 33) would be stationed along the Danube and the Rhine. Numerous Germans settled in frontier regions like Dacia , Pannonia , Germany and Italy itself. This was not a new occurrence, but this time the numbers of settlers required the creation of two new frontier provinces on the left shore of the Danube, Sarmatia and Marcomannia , including today's Czech Republic and Slovakia . Some Germans who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of

854-714: The Tisza river , and eastwards, past the Vistula , and towards the headwaters of the Dniester . The earliest form of the culture was a northern extension of the Celtic La Tène material culture which influenced much of continental Europe in the Iron Age, but it was also influenced by other material cultures of the region, including the Jastorf culture to its west. To the east, the Przeworsk culture

915-419: The Vandals , although they were probably only one ethnic element within the culture. Also, the Przeworsk culture has been linked to the early Slavs , with recent studies, which looked at the morphological features of skeletal remains, suggesting that that populations of the Przeworsk, Wielbark, and Cherniakhovo cultures from the Roman period bore closer similarities to the early medieval West Slavs than to

976-607: The Victuali had crossed the Danube into the province, but, at least according to the Historia Augusta , the approach of the imperial army to Carnuntum was apparently sufficient to persuade them to withdraw and offer assurances of good conduct. The two emperors returned to Aquileia for the winter, but on the way, in January 169, Lucius Verus had a stroke and died. Marcus returned to Rome to oversee his co-emperor's funeral, deifying him in

1037-466: The millennium industrial complex for the extraction of salt from salt springs was discovered in Chabsk near Mogilno . Examinations of the burial grounds, of which even the largest used continuously over periods of up to several centuries, contains no more than several hundreds graves, shows that the overall population density was low. The dead were cremated and the ashes sometimes placed in urns, which had

1098-455: The Balkans (250–251) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (267–268) Roman–Alemannic Wars Gothic War (367–369) Gothic War (376–382) Visigothic Wars Vandalic Wars Anglo-Saxon Wars Vandalic War (533–534) Gothic War (535–554) The Marcomannic Wars ( Latin : bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum German and Sarmatian war ) were

1159-494: The Danube, ravaged Thrace and descended into the Balkans, reaching Eleusis , near Athens , where they destroyed the temple of the Eleusinian Mysteries . The most important and dangerous invasion, however, was that of the Marcomanni in the west. Their leader, Ballomar, had formed a coalition of Germanic tribes. They crossed the Danube and won a decisive victory over a force of 20,000 Roman soldiers near Carnuntum, in what

1220-657: The Empire's reach, the Romans aimed for a combination of military-territorial dominance, while at the same time, engaging in mutually beneficial commerce. By the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 161 AD, the pressures along the Roman frontier had reached a critical point as the Germanic tribes along its borders at the Rhine and Danube came to the conclusion that their survival meant breaking into Rome's territories. Beginning in 162 and continuing until 165, an invasion of Chatti and Chauci in

1281-823: The Germans and Sarmatians occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius , and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work Meditations . Secure for many years following his ascension to power, the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius never left Italy; neither did he embark on substantial conquests, all the while allowing his provincial legates to command his legions entirely. Historian Adrian Goldsworthy posits that Pius's reluctance to take aggressive military action throughout his reign may have contributed to Parthian territorial ambitions. The resulting war between Parthia and Rome lasted from 161 to 166 AD (under

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1342-463: The Latin map Tabula Peutingeriana generally dated to 2nd-4th century AD. The Lugii were probably completely absorbed into the Vandals by the 3rd century. While the two peoples are located by Roman authors as living in the same region, they are never mentioned simultaneously. According to John Anderson , the "Lugii and Vandilii are designations of the same tribal group, the latter an extended ethnic name,

1403-488: The Lugians comes from Cassius Dio 's work Roman History , in which he mentions events of 91–92 during the reign of emperor Domitian . The Lugii allied themselves with the Romans and asked them for help against some of the Suebi . Domitian sent 100 horsemen to support the Lugians. It is not known if these horsemen really arrived at their destination; if they did, it would be the first recorded presence of Roman soldiers on what

1464-458: The Przeworsk culture also shows significant contact with the Jastorf Culture , associated with the spread of early Germanic tribes and the early Suevian peoples . To the east, the Przeworsk culture is associated with the Zarubintsy culture in what is now northern Ukraine and southern Belarus , and the early Slavic peoples . Later in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, much of this eastern area

1525-460: The Quadi deposed their pro-Roman king, Furtius , and installed his rival, Ariogaesus , in his place. Marcus Aurelius refused to recognize him, and turning back, deposed and exiled him to Alexandria . Thus, by late 174, the subjugation of the Quadi was complete. In typical Roman fashion, they were forced to surrender hostages and provide auxiliary contingents for the Roman army, while garrisons were installed throughout their territory. After this,

1586-508: The Roman generals included Marcus Valerius Maximianus , Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus . At any rate, the victories they achieved were deemed sufficient for Emperor Commodus to claim the victory title " Germanicus Maximus " in mid-182. An inscription ( CIL III 5937) describes a campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Lugii or Burii ( Expeditio Burica ). The wars had exposed the weakness of Rome's northern frontier, and henceforth, half of

1647-534: The Romans focused their attention on the Iazyges living in the plain of the river Tisza ( expeditio sarmatica ). After a few victories, in 175, a treaty was signed. According to its terms, the Iazyges King Zanticus delivered 100,000 Roman prisoners and, in addition, provided 8,000 auxiliary cavalrymen , most of whom (5,500) were sent to Britain . Upon this, Marcus assumed the victory title " Sarmaticus ". Marcus Aurelius may have intended to campaign against

1708-459: The Vandals at all. The Buri, who according to Ptolemy were part of the Lugians, (Tacitus treated them separately, and as Suebian in language) took an important role during the Marcomannic Wars (166–180): the Romans were forced to organize a separate military campaign against them called 'Expeditio Burica' in 182-183 during the reign of emperor Commodus . The later history of the Lugians

1769-555: The adoption of the title " Germanicus " by Marcus Aurelius, and the minting of coins with the inscription " Germania capta " ("subjugated Germania"). During this campaign, Valao, the chief of the Naristi was killed by the Roman General Marcus Valerius Maximianus . In 173, the Romans campaigned against the Quadi, who had broken their treaty and assisted their kin, and defeated and subdued them. During this campaign,

1830-490: The beginning of what was to come. In their aftermath, the military governor of Pannonia, Marcus Iallius Bassus , initiated negotiations with 11 tribes. In these negotiations, the Marcomannic king Ballomar , a Roman client, acted as a mediator and dismissed the actions of these invading Germanic tribes as an aberration. In the event, a truce was agreed upon and the tribes withdrew from Roman territory, but no permanent agreement

1891-427: The body. The burials range from "poor" to "rich", the latter ones supplied with fancy Celtic and then Roman imports, reflecting a considerably by this time developed social stratification. The main feature of the Przeworsk culture are burials. These were mostly cremations, with occasional inhumation. Warrior burials are notable, which often include horse-gear and spurs. Some burials are exceptionally rich, overshadowing

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1952-452: The book Germania (43:3), Tacitus mentions the name Vandilii as a "genuine and ancient name", but does not mention the Vandilii in the list of peoples at all. Tacitus however describes the Lugii, writing that they were divided into many tribes ('civitates'), of which he mentions the five most powerful: Harii , Helveconae , Manimi , Helisii and Nahanarvali . The next information about

2013-450: The city, but was defeated and possibly killed during the battle (other sources have him die of the plague). There is no consensus amongst scholars as to the year that the great Germanic invasion towards Aquileia took place. Several authors, like Marcus Aurelius' biographer Frank McLynn , accepting the date of defeat near Carnuntum as 170, place the great Germanic invasion itself three years earlier. They maintain it happened in 167 because by

2074-486: The command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus , the Romans fought and prevailed against the Quadi in a decisive battle at Laugaricio (near modern Trenčín , Slovakia). The Quadi were chased deeper into Greater Germania westwards, where the praetorian prefect Publius Tarrutenius Paternus later achieved another decisive victory against them, but on 17 March 180, Marcus Aurelius died at Vindobona (modern Vienna ). His son and successor, Commodus , had little interest in pursuing

2135-513: The command of Claudius Pompeianus, with the future emperor Pertinax as one of his lieutenants. A new military command, the praetentura Italiae et Alpium was established to safeguard the roads into Italy, and the Danubian fleet was strengthened. Aquileia was relieved, and by the end of 171, the invaders had been evicted from Roman territory. Intense diplomatic activity followed, as the Romans tried to win over various barbarian tribes in preparation for

2196-454: The emperor being near the front when the disaster occurred, whereas by 170 Marcus Aurelius had settled there. McLynn maintains that Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus went to Aquileia in 168 to restore morale after the disaster as Aquileia makes no geographical, logistical or military sense as a base of operations for launching a campaign on the Danube in Pannonia. The reason McLynn maintains that 170

2257-583: The event should not be treated as a fatal blow to the Empire. Instead, Rome's resilience was demonstrated since the Empire remained intact and Roman birth rates in the decade following the plague subsequently increased. At the same time, in Central Europe during the second-century AD, the first movements of the Great Migrations were occurring, as the Goths began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at

2318-500: The former probably a cult-title." Herwig Wolfram notes that "In all likelihood the Lugians and the Vandals were one cultic community that lived in the same region of the Oder in Silesia, where it was first under Celtic and then under Germanic domination." Przeworsk culture The Przeworsk culture ( Polish pronunciation: [ˈpʂɛvɔrsk] ) was an Iron Age material culture in

2379-419: The graves of Germanic groups further west, especially after 400 AD. Pottery and metalwork are often rich and show a great variety The Przeworsk culture was probably not exclusively connected with a single ancient ethnic or linguistic group. In classical ethnography, the culture was linked to a group of peoples known as the Lugii . Among specific Germanic peoples, the Przeworsk culture is often associated with

2440-510: The independent tribes (especially the Iazyges ), who lived between the Danube and the Roman province of Dacia. The Iazyges defeated and killed Marcus Claudius Fronto , Roman governor of Lower Moesia. However, while the Roman army was entangled in this campaign, making little headway, several tribes used the opportunity to cross the frontier and raid Roman territory. To the east, the Costoboci crossed

2501-406: The joint rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus ) and, although it ended successfully, its unforeseen consequences for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them a plague (the so-called Antonine Plague ), which would eventually kill an estimated 7 to 8 million people, severely weakening the Empire. Despite the consequences of the plague, historian Kyle Harper contends that

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2562-528: The late 5/6th century, the early Slavic Prague-Korchak culture appears in the Vistula basin. Marcomannic Wars Status quo ante bellum Principal Belligerents: Gallic Wars (58 BC – 57 BC) Clades Lolliana (16 BC) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Marcomannic Wars (166–180) ( participating Roman units ) Roman campaigns in Germania during the 230s Gothic invasion of

2623-468: The medieval Germanic-speaking populations. However, recent archaeological research rejected connection with and continuity of the early Slavs. The culture's decline in the late 5th century coincides with the invasion of the Huns . Other factors may have included the social crisis that occurred as a result of the collapse of the Roman world and the trade contacts it maintained with peoples beyond its borders. In

2684-549: The mid-part in the form of an engraved bulge. In the 1st century AD this was replaced with a sharp-profiled (with a horizontal ridge around the circumference) shape. In Siemiechów a grave of a warrior who may have taken part in the Ariovistus expedition during the 70–50 BC period was found; it contains Celtic weapons and an Alpine region manufactured helmet used as an urn, together with local ceramics. The burial gifts were often, for unknown reasons, bent or broken, and then burned with

2745-641: The middle part of the Amber Road from Sambia at the Baltic Sea to the provinces of Roman Empire : Pannonia , Noricum and Raetia . The Lugii should not be confused with a tribe of the same name, usually spelled as Lugi , that inhabited the southern part of Sutherland in Scotland . The Lugii have been identified by many modern historians as the same people as the Vandals , with whom they must certainly have been strongly linked during Roman times. The etymology of

2806-495: The most important peoples of Germania, including the tribes Burgundiones , Varines , Charines and Gutones . The next mention of Lugii are the times of the Roman emperor Claudius (41–54). According to Tacitus 's Annales , in 50 'a great multitude' of Lugians and Hermunduri , led by the Hermundurian Vibilius , took part in the fall of Vannius , who the Romans had imposed as a ruler to replace Maroboduus. In

2867-505: The mouth of River Vistula (see Wielbark culture ), putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic peoples launched raids south and west across Rome's northern border , particularly into Gaul and across the Danube . Whether this sudden influx of peoples with which Marcus Aurelius had to contend was the result of climate change or overpopulation remains unknown. Theories exist that

2928-530: The name Lugii is uncertain. It could be related to the Celtic root *leug- ('swamp'), *lugiyo- ('oath'; cf. Gaulish luge , 'by the oath', OIr. luige 'oath'), * lugo - ('black', cf. Ir. loch ), or possibly to the name of the god Lug . The Lugii are first mentioned in Strabo 's Geographica . He writes that the Lugians were "a great people" and—together with other peoples like Semnones , Lombards and

2989-569: The otherwise unknown Zumi, Butones, Mugilones and Sibini—were part of a federation subjected to the rule of Maroboduus , ruler of the Marcomanni with their centre in modern Bohemia 9 BC–19 AD. In 19 AD Maroboduus was overthrown with the help of Arminius of the Cherusci . The Lugii are not mentioned at all by Pliny the Elder , who instead mentions the Vandilii living in the same area as one of

3050-493: The process. In the autumn of 169, Marcus set out from Rome, together with his son-in-law Claudius Pompeianus , who became his chief counselor during the war. To raise money for the campaign, Marcus was forced to auctioned off property that belonged to the imperial household, a move that was "the only way" to generate revenue instead of increasing taxes on an already burdened populace, so quips historian Michael Kulikowski. The Romans had gathered their forces and intended to subdue

3111-625: The provinces of Raetia and Germania Superior was repulsed. In late 166 or early 167, several thousand Langobardi and Lacringi (or Obii) invaded Pannonia . These tribes exerted pressure on those that had already been established along the Roman border. This invasion was defeated by local forces ( vexillations of the Legio I Adiutrix commanded by a certain Candidus and the Ala Ulpia contariorum commanded by Vindex ) with relative ease, but they marked

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3172-454: The region of what is now Poland , that dates from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD. It takes its name from the town Przeworsk , near the village where the first artifacts were identified. In its earliest form it was located in what is now central and southern Poland, in the upper Oder and Vistula basins. It later spread southwards, beyond the Carpathians , towards the headwaters of

3233-451: The remaining tribes, and together with his recent conquests establish two new Roman provinces , Marcomannia and Sarmatia , but whatever his plans, they were cut short by the rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the East. Marcus Aurelius marched eastwards with his army, accompanied by auxiliary detachments of Marcomanni, Quadi and Naristi under the command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus . After

3294-473: The successful suppression of Cassius' revolt, the emperor returned to Rome for the first time in nearly 8 years. On 23 December 176, together with his son Commodus , he celebrated a joint triumph for his German victories (" de Germanis " and " de Sarmatis "). In commemoration of this, the Aurelian Column was erected, in imitation of Trajan's Column . The victory celebrations of the previous year were but

3355-458: The various Germanic tribes along the periphery of the Empire may have conspired to test Roman resolve as part of an attempt to bring to possible fruition Arminius 's dream of a future united Germanic empire. Up until these subsequent wars, the Marcomanni and Quadi generally enjoyed amicable relations and access to the Empire's wares—archaeological evidence of Roman household goods and practices illustrate such contact. As with almost all areas within

3416-466: The war after his father's death. Against the advice of his senior generals, Commodus negotiated a peace treaty with the Marcomanni and the Quadi. He then left for Rome in early autumn 180 A.D., where he celebrated a triumph on October 22. Operations continued against the Iazyges, the Buri and the so-called " free Dacians " living between the Danube and Roman Dacia . Not much is known about this war, except that

3477-538: The year 170 the Germans would have been checked by the Praetentura Italiae et Alpium —the fortifications which were erected in 168–169 to block a breakthrough of the Alps to Northern Italy—whereas all sources confirm it to be a military walkover. A further argument is that the panic which gripped Rome in 167–168 would make no sense if the Germanic tribes were still on the opposite side of the Danube. Also, no source mentions

3538-563: Was called by an Egyptian magician praying to Mercury , while Christian writers such as Tertullian attributed it to a prayer by Christians. In the same year, Didius Iulianus , the commander of the Rhine frontier, repelled another invasion of the Chatti and the Hermunduri , while the Chauci raided the shoreline of Gallia Belgica . In the next year, the Romans marched against the Quadi, whereupon

3599-470: Was planning to lead in person was postponed until 168. In the spring of that year, Marcus Aurelius, together with Lucius Verus , set forth from Rome, and established their headquarters at Aquileia . The two emperors supervised a reorganization of the defences of Italy and the Illyricum, raised two new legions, Legio II Italica and Legio III Italica , and crossed the Alps into Pannonia. The Marcomanni and

3660-509: Was reached. Since the Romans were already fighting the Parthians at this time, the diplomatic measures ( bellum suspensum ) in ending this conflict were considered a success, but it remains unclear which tribes had even participated in the original incursions. During that time, as the Antonine plague was ravaging the empire, Marcus Aurelius was unable to do more, and the punitive expedition he

3721-521: Was subsequently absorbed by the Wielbark culture and Chernyakhov culture . The Przeworsk culture people lived in small, unprotected villages, populated each by a few dozen residents at most, made up of several houses, usually set partially below the ground level (semi-sunken), each covering an area of 8–22 square meters. They knew how to dig and build wells, so the settlements didn't have to be located near bodies of water. Thirteen 2nd century wells with variously constructed timber lined walls were found at

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