Lwówek [ˈlvuvɛk] is a town in Nowy Tomyśl County , Greater Poland Voivodeship , Poland , with 2,961 inhabitants (2010).
128-650: Town rights were granted by King Władysław II Jagiełło . The town was known as Lwów, before the name was changed to the current Lwówek in the mid-15th century for distinction from the larger city of Lwów . Lwówek was a private town , administratively located in the Poznań County in the Poznań Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. 540 Jews lived in the town in 1871. Following
256-656: A Russian state. Western Ukrainian diplomats in Paris sought contact with Russian counterparts in that city. The Russian Whites had mixed views of this proposed alliance. On the one hand, they were wary of the Galicians' Russophobia and concerned about the effect of such an alliance on their relationship with Poland. On the other hand, the Russians respected the discipline and training of the Galician soldiers and understood that an agreement with
384-471: A ban on Polish press and publications was issued in Lviv by Ukrainian authorities and printing presses demolished (Poles had similarly banned Ukrainian publications in territories they controlled ) Ukrainian authorities tried to intimidate Polish population in Lviv by sending soldiers and armed trucks into the streets and dispersed crowds that could turn to Polish demonstrations. Christoph Mick states that initially,
512-730: A camp in Kosiv , according to various sources from 300 to 600 (dying from typhoid) in Mykulyntsi, 100 in Kolomyia, and 16 to 40 in Berezhany , due to unheated barracks at temperatures of −20 °C. Cases of robbing, beating, torturing or shooting of Polish prisoners were reported. According to the historian Christopher Mick, the Ukrainian government in general treated the Polish population under its control no worse than
640-589: A chance to compromise with Poland and obtain international recognition of the Ukrainian state by the Entente. The commission succeeded in getting the armistice treaty signed on 24 February 1919, and presented its proposals to the parties on 28 February, which was rejected by the West Ukrainian side. As a result of the failure to agree on the demarcation line, Polish-Ukrainian hostilities resumed on 2 March. In April 1920, Józef Piłsudski and Symon Petliura agreed in
768-825: A compromise between belligerents the Polish–Ukrainian War continued until July 1919 when the last UHA forces withdrew east of the River Zbruch . The border on the River Zbruch was confirmed at the Treaty of Warsaw , when in April 1920 Field Marshal Piłsudski signed an agreement with Symon Petlura where it was agreed that in exchange for military support against the Bolsheviks the Ukrainian People's Republic renounced its claims to
896-673: A draft truce convention on 15 February 1919. The truce, along the Barthelemy Line, was to be purely military and not affect the decisions of the Paris Peace Conference in any way. An integral part of the convention was to be a supplementary treaty concerning the Boryslav-Drohobychian Oil Basin [ pl ] . It was to remain on the Polish side of the truce line under the management of an international commission, with 50% of oil production to be transferred to
1024-655: A first-hand account of the chaotic evacuation of the city by the Austro-Hungarian Army and civilians alike. The town was retaken by Austria-Hungary in June the following year during the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive . Lviv and its population, therefore, suffered greatly during the First World War as many of the offensives were fought across its local geography causing significant collateral damage and disruption. After
1152-583: A historic scene, as here King John II Casimir made his famous Lwów Oath . On 1 April 1656, during a holy mass in Lviv's Cathedral conducted by the papal legate Pietro Vidoni , John Casimir in a grandiose and elaborate ceremony entrusted the Commonwealth under the Blessed Virgin Mary's protection, whom he announced as The Queen of the Polish Crown and other of his countries . He also swore to protect
1280-541: A law was passed that made Ukrainian the state language . According to this law, however, members of national minorities had the right to communicate with the government in their own languages. Polish historian Rafał Galuba writes that Polish population was treated as second class citizens by West Ukrainian authorities After 1 November several members of Polish associations were arrested or interned by Ukrainian authorities; similar fate awaited officials who refused to swear an oath of loyalty to Ukrainian state. On 6 November
1408-565: A new town) in a basin, surrounded it by walls, and replaced the wooden palace by masonry castle – one of the two built by him. The old (Ruthenian) settlement, after it had been rebuilt, became known as the Krakovian Suburb in reference to the city of Kraków . In 1349, the Kingdom of Ruthenia with its capital Lviv was annexed by the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . The kingdom was transformed into
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#17328701971291536-530: A number of other names . The coat of arms , the banner of the Lviv City Council and the logo, are the officially approved symbols of Lviv. The names or images of architectural and historical monuments are also considered symbols of the city by the Statute of Lviv. Lviv's modern coat of arms is based on the coat of arms from the city seal in the middle of the 14th century—a stone gate with three towers, and in
1664-677: A peace between the Polish and Ukrainian populace. Although relations between Poles and the West Ukrainian People's Republic were antagonistic, those between the Republic and its Jewish citizens was generally neutral or positive. Deep-seated rivalries existed between the Jewish and Polish communities, and anti-Semitism, particularly supported by the Polish National Democratic Party , became a feature of Polish national ideology. As
1792-603: A pro-German orientation were closed. After the revolutions of 1848 , the language of instruction at the university shifted from German to include Ukrainian and Polish. Around that time, a certain sociolect developed in the city known as the Lwów dialect . Considered to be a type of Polish dialect, it draws its roots from numerous other languages besides Polish. In 1853, kerosene lamps as street lighting were introduced by Ignacy Łukasiewicz and Jan Zeh. Then in 1858, these were updated to gas lamps , and in 1900 to electric ones . After
1920-647: A report that he submitted to the Polish Foreign Ministry in early 1920, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Lviv Józef Bilczewski stated that the anti-Polish violence under Ukrainian governance was widespread and organised by the government, rather than being spontaneous. He headed a rescue committee that provided food to the poorest, and along with the Greek Catholic Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky he tried to negotiate
2048-549: A result of the Ukrainian disapproval, the Entente delegation made another attempt at mediation. This was carried out by the Inter-allied Commission for Poland [ pl ] subcommittee set up on 15 February 1919 and headed by Joseph Noulens . The sub-commission consisted of General Joseph Barthelemy ( France ) as chairman, Colonel Adrian Carton de Wiart ( UK ), Dr Robert Howard Lord ( United States ) and Major Giovanni Stabile ( Italy ). The subcommittee presented
2176-482: A result, many Jews came to consider Polish independence as the least desirable option following the First World War. In contrast to the antagonistic position taken by Polish authorities towards Jews, the Ukrainian government actively supported Jewish cultural and political autonomy as a way of promoting its own legitimacy. The Western Ukrainian government guaranteed Jewish cultural and national autonomy, provided Jewish communities with self-governing status, and promoted
2304-479: A rule "by bayonet, cudgel, and axe". Polish officials resigned en masse, which undermined the Republic's ability to lead an effective administration. Poles dominated the urban areas and started an uprising against the Ukrainian rule not only in Lviv, but also in Drohobych, Peremyshl , Sambir and Yaroslav . This made the West Ukrainian government unable to exert control over the western half of its territory, and made
2432-803: A short time, it was the capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic . Between the wars, the city was the centre of the Lwów Voivodeship in the Second Polish Republic . After the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, Lviv was annexed by the Soviet Union . The once-large Jewish community of the city was murdered in large numbers by the Nazis and during the Holocaust . For decades there
2560-694: A significant centre for Eastern Orthodoxy with the establishment of an Orthodox brotherhood, a Greek-Slavonic school, and a printer which published the first full versions of the Bible in Church Slavonic in 1580. A Jesuit Collegium was founded in 1608, and on 20 January 1661 King John II Casimir of Poland issued a decree granting it "the honour of the academy and the title of the university". The 17th century brought invading armies of Swedes , Hungarians , Turks , Russians and Cossacks to its gates. In 1648 an army of Cossacks and Crimean Tatars besieged
2688-647: A thoroughly rebuilt form. The town was inherited by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1340 and ruled by voivode Dmytro Dedko , the favourite of the Lithuanian prince Liubartas , until 1349. The city and region was a destination of 50,000 Armenians fleeing from the Saljuq and Mongol invasions of Armenia. During the wars over the succession of Galicia-Volhynia Principality in 1339 King Casimir III of Poland undertook an expedition and conquered Lviv in 1340, burning down
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#17328701971292816-680: A two-party political system, dominated by the Ukrainian National Democrats and by its smaller rival, the Ukrainian Radical Party . The ruling National Democrats gave some of their seats to minor parties in order to ensure that the government represented a broad national coalition. In terms of the Ukrainian National Council's social background, 57.1% of its members came from priestly families , 23.8% from peasant households, 4.8% from urban backgrounds, and 2.4% from
2944-570: Is 296 metres (971 feet) above sea level . Its highest point is the Vysokyi Zamok ( High Castle ), 409 meters (1,342 feet) above sea level . This castle has a commanding view of the historic city centre with its distinctive green-domed churches and intricate architecture. The old walled city was at the foothills of the High Castle on the banks of the Poltva River . In the 13th century, the river
3072-896: Is 745 mm (29 in) with the maximum in summer. Mean sunshine duration per year at Lviv is about 1,804 hours. [REDACTED] Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia c. 1250–1340 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland 1340–1569 [REDACTED] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1569–1772 [REDACTED] Austrian Empire / A-H Empire 1772–1914 [REDACTED] Russian Empire 1914–1915 ( occupation ) [REDACTED] Austro-Hungarian Empire 1915–1918 [REDACTED] West Ukrainian People's Republic 1918 [REDACTED] Poland (Second Republic) 1918–1939 [REDACTED] Soviet Union ( Ukrainian SSR ) 1939–1941 ( occupation ) [REDACTED] Nazi Germany 1941–1944 ( occupation ) [REDACTED] Soviet Union ( Ukrainian SSR ) 1944–1991 [REDACTED] Ukraine 1991– present Archaeologists have demonstrated that
3200-581: Is also the home of many cultural institutions, including a philharmonic orchestra and the Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet . The city of Lviv is also historically known by different names in other languages – Polish : Lwów [lvuf] ; German : Lemberg [ˈlɛmbɛʁk] or (archaic) Leopoldstadt [ˈleːopɔltˌʃtat] ; Yiddish : לעמבעריק , romanized : Lemberik ; Russian : Львов , romanized : Lvov [lʲvof] ; as well as
3328-566: Is on the UNESCO World Heritage List ; however, it has been listed as an endangered site due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine . Due to the city's Mediterranean aura, many Soviet movies set in places like Venice or Rome were actually shot in Lviv. In 1991 , Lviv became part of the independent nation of Ukraine. The city has many industries and institutions of higher education , such as Lviv University and Lviv Polytechnic . Lviv
3456-470: Is recognised by Poland that ethnographical conditions necessitate an autonomous regime in the Eastern part of Galicia ." This provision was never honoured by the interwar Polish government . After 1923, the region was internationally recognized as part of the Polish state. During the interwar period Lviv was the Second Polish Republic 's third-most populous city (following Warsaw and Łódź ), and it became
3584-670: The Lebensraum policy. The Polish resistance was active in Lwówek. The commander of the Lwówek- Pniewy unit of the Union of Armed Struggle , was arrested by the Gestapo on 14 October 1942 and subjected to brutal interrogations during which he died a week later. Under German occupation, the town was renamed to Neustadt bei Pinne in 1939 and then to Kirschneustadt in 1943. Landmarks of Lwówek include
3712-683: The 14th century , superseding Halych , Chełm , Belz , and Przemyśl . It was the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia from 1272 to 1349, when it was conquered by King Casimir III the Great of Poland . From 1434, it was the regional capital of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Kingdom of Poland . In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland , the city became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . In 1918, for
3840-690: The Baroque palace, the Gothic Church of the Assumption, the Baroque Holy Cross church and the Rynek (Market Square) filled with colourful historic townhouses. Lw%C3%B3w Lviv ( / l ə ˈ v iː v / lə- VEEV or / l ə ˈ v iː f / lə- VEEF ; Ukrainian : Львів [ˈlʲwiu̯] ; see below for other names) is the largest city in western Ukraine , as well as
3968-657: The Drohobych oil fields by surprise but were driven back, outnumbered by the Ukrainians. The resulting stalemate saw the Poles retaining control over Lviv and a narrow strip of land around a railway linking the city to Poland, while the rest of eastern Galicia remained under the control of the West Ukrainian National Republic. The Polish population was hostile to the newly formed West Ukrainian state. They considered it
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4096-570: The Polish pogrom in Lviv . The Ukrainian press maintained a friendly attitude towards the West Ukrainian Republic's Jewish citizens. Their Hebrew and Yiddish schools, cultural institutions and publishers were allowed to function without interference. Reflecting the republic's demographics, approximately one-third of the seats in the national parliament were reserved for the national minorities (Poles, Jews, Slovaks and others). The Poles boycotted
4224-687: The Polish-Ukrainian War , a French general Marie Joseph Barthélemy [ de ] proposed a demarcation line, known as the Barthelemy Line [ pl ] , that was supposed to cease the fighting between the Polish and West Ukrainian army. In 1918, the Entente countries sought to form a common anti-Bolshevik front, which was to include the Polish, White Russian , Romanian and Ukrainian armies. The outbreak of Polish-Ukrainian hostilities in Lviv on 1 November thwarted these plans, so
4352-604: The Prut from Kolomyia to Chernivtsi in Bukovina . The West Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed on 1 November 1918. The Ukrainian National Rada (a council consisting of all Ukrainian representatives from both houses of the Austrian parliament and from the provincial diets in Galicia and Bukovina ) planned to declare the West Ukrainian People's Republic on 3 November 1918, but moved
4480-643: The Royal elections in Poland , alongside other major cities such as Kraków , Poznań , Warsaw or Gdańsk . During the 17th century, it was the second largest city of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , with a population of about 30,000. In 1572, one of the first publishers of books in what is now Ukraine, Ivan Fedorov , a graduate of the University of Kraków , settled here for a brief period. The city became
4608-409: The Treaty of Warsaw to a border on the river Zbruch , officially recognizing Polish control over the disputed territory of Eastern Galicia. In exchange for agreeing to a border along the Zbruch River , recognizing the recent Polish territorial gains in western Ukraine, as well as the western portions of Volhynian Governorate , Kholm Governorate , and other territories (Article II), Poland recognized
4736-401: The Union of Active Struggle . Two years later, the paramilitary organisation, called the Riflemen's Association , was also founded in the city by Polish activists. At the same time, Lviv became the city where famous Ukrainian writers (such as Ivan Franko , Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Nechuy-Levytsky ) published their work. It was a centre of Ukrainian cultural revival. The city also housed
4864-406: The collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy at the end of the First World War, Lviv became an arena of battle between the local Polish population and the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen . Both nations perceived the city as an integral part of their new statehoods which at that time were forming in the former Austrian territories. On the night of 31 October – 1 November 1918 the Western Ukrainian People's Republic
4992-405: The old princely castle . Poland ultimately gained control over Lviv and the adjacent region in 1349. From then on the population was subjected to attempts to both Polonize and Catholicize the population. The Lithuanians ravaged Lviv land in 1351 during the Halych-Volhyn Wars with Lviv being plundered and destroyed by duke Liubartas in 1353. Casimir built a new city center (or founded
5120-433: The peace treaty with Austria . The Entente also never recognised the Western Ukrainian People's Republic. With regard to the territory of eastern Galicia, it attempted to introduce a makeshift solution, a long-lasting (25 years) mandate for Poland to administer Galicia, with the territory being granted the status of autonomy . The expiry of the mandate period was to be followed by a plebiscite . The political intention of
5248-425: The petty nobility . In terms of the identified council members' vocational background, approximately 30% were lawyers, 22% were teachers, 14% were farmers , 13% were priests, and 5% were civil servants. Approximately 28% had PhD 's, mostly in law. The West Ukrainian People's Republic governed an area with a population of approximately 4 million people for much of its nine-month existence. Lviv functioned as
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5376-451: The sixth-largest city in Ukraine, with a population of 717,500 (2022 estimate). It serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast and Lviv Raion , and is one of the main cultural centres of Ukraine . Lviv also hosts the administration of Lviv urban hromada . It was named after Leo I of Galicia , the eldest son of Daniel , King of Ruthenia . Lviv emerged as the centre of the historical regions of Red Ruthenia and Galicia in
5504-415: The socialist revolutionary attitude of their Kyiv-based peers with some dismay and with the concern that the social unrest in the East would spread to Galicia. Likewise, the West Ukrainian troops were more disciplined while those of Kyiv's Ukrainian People's Army were more chaotic and prone to committing pogroms, something actively opposed by the western Ukrainians. The poor discipline in Kyiv's army and
5632-417: The socialistic Kyiv-based Ukrainian government. The territory of the West Ukrainian People's Republic comprised 12 military districts, whose commanders were responsible for conscripting soldiers. The government was able to mobilize 100,000 soldiers in the spring of 1919, but due to a lack of military supplies, only 40,000 were battle-ready. In general, the government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic
5760-407: The sovereignty of the Second Polish Republic over the territory of Eastern Galicia on 15 March 1923, with the reservation that Poland introduce autonomous status for this territory, a surrogate for which was the Act on Provincial Self-Government of September 1922, stating in its very title the special character of the territory of Eastern Galicia within the Polish state. Following a decision by
5888-476: The Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy, but the Galician Sejm and provincial administration, both established in Lviv, had extensive privileges and prerogatives, especially in education, culture, and local affairs. In 1894, the General National Exhibition was held in Lviv. The city started to grow rapidly, becoming the fourth largest in Austria-Hungary, according to the census of 1910. Many Belle Époque public edifices and tenement houses were erected, with many of
6016-465: The City of Lwów (since 1891), the Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists , the Polish Historical Society , Lwów University , with Polish as the official language since 1882, the Lwów Scientific Society , the Lwów Art Gallery , the Polish Theatre , and the Polish Archdiocese . Furthermore, Lviv was the centre of a number of Polish independence organisations. In June 1908, Józef Piłsudski , Władysław Sikorski and Kazimierz Sosnkowski founded here
6144-423: The Council of Ambassadors, the West Ukrainian government in exile led by Sydir Holubovych in Vienna dissolved on 15 March 1923, and most of its members returned to Poland, being actively involved in the political and social life of the Ukrainian minority in the Second Polish Republic . From 22 to 25 November elections took place in Ukrainian-controlled territory for the 150-member Ukrainian National Council that
6272-449: The Crown was transformed into the Ruthenian Voivodeship . In 1444, the city was granted the staple right , which resulted in its growing prosperity and wealth, as it became one of the major trading centres on the merchant routes between Central Europe and Black Sea region. It was also transformed into one of the main fortresses of the kingdom. As one of the largest and most influential royal cities of Poland, it enjoyed voting rights in
6400-434: The Entente states at the time was to preserve the territory of eastern Galicia for White Russia . Poland opposed these ideas, while at the same time pursuing a policy of establishing its own governance on the disputed territory, integrating it into the Polish state. Following the consolidation of Soviet power in Russia and the restoration of non-Bolshevik Russia becoming unachievable, the Council of Ambassadors recognised
6528-475: The Entente states began to press both the Poles and Galicians to seek a settlement and adopt the demarcation line proposed by the allied states. On 19 January 1919, by the order of General Franchet d'Esperey , a peacekeeping mission under the command of General Joseph Barthelemy arrived in Kraków . Initially, the mission familiarised itself with the Polish position, which opted for the Bug - Świca [ pl ] line. It then travelled to Lviv, meeting with
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#17328701971296656-474: The Jewish and Ukrainian quarters of the city, killing approximately 340 civilians (see: Lwów pogrom ). The retreating Ukrainian forces besieged the city. The Sich riflemen reformed into the Ukrainian Galician Army (UHA). The Polish forces aided from central Poland, including General Haller's Blue Army , equipped by the French, relieved the besieged city in May 1919 forcing the UHA to the east. Despite Entente mediation attempts to cease hostilities and reach
6784-532: The Jewish community, imprisoning and even executing perpetrators of such crimes. The government also respected Jewish declared neutrality during the Polish-Ukrainian conflict. By the orders of Yevhen Petrushevych it was forbidden to mobilize Jews against their will or to otherwise force them to contribute to the Ukrainian military effort. In an effort to aid Western Ukraine's economy, the Western Ukrainian government granted concessions to Jewish merchants. The West Ukrainian government's friendly attitude towards Jews
6912-439: The Kingdom's folk from any impositions and unjust bondage . Two years later, John Casimir, in honor of the bravery of its residents, declared Lviv to be equal to two historic capitals of the Commonwealth, Kraków and Vilnius . In the same year, 1658, Pope Alexander VII declared the city to be Semper fidelis , in recognition of its key role in defending Europe and Roman Catholicism from the Ottoman Muslim invasion. In 1672 it
7040-427: The League of Nations declaring on 23 February 1921 that Galicia lay outside the territory of Poland, that Poland did not have the mandate to establish administrative control in that country, and that Poland was merely the occupying military power of Eastern Galicia , whose fate would be determined by the Council of Ambassadors at the League of Nations . After a long series of further negotiations, on 14 March 1923 it
7168-514: The Lviv area was settled by the fifth century, with the gord at Chernecha Hora -Voznesensk Street in Lychakivskyi District attributed to White Croats . The city of Lviv was founded in 1250 by King Daniel of Galicia (1201–1264) in the Principality of Halych of Kingdom of Ruthenia . It was named in honor of his son Lev as Lvihorod which is consistent with names of other Ukrainian cities, such as Myrhorod , Sharhorod , Novhorod , Bilhorod , Horodyshche , and Horodok . Earlier there
7296-451: The Poles a potential ally against his Russian enemies. In response to the Kyiv government's diplomatic talks with Poland, the Western Ukrainian government sent a delegation to the Soviet 12th Army , but ultimately rejected Soviet conditions for an alliance. In August 1919, Kost Levytsky , head of the Western Ukrainian state secretariat, proposed an alliance with Anton Denikin 's White Russians which would involve guaranteed autonomy within
7424-486: The Polish government treated the Ukrainians under its control, writing that Ukrainian authorities didn't treat the Polish population "gently" and that Ukrainian authorities mirrored Polish authorities by making speaking in Polish unwelcome. Mick acknowledges that Ukrainian side during the siege of Lviv stopped caring about supplies reaching the city and attempted to disrupt water supply to city. Its fierce artillery fire killed many civilians, including women and children. In
7552-400: The Polish offensive possible. Two smaller states west of the West Ukrainian People's Republic also declared independence as result of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Komańcza Republic , an association of 30 Lemko villages based around Komańcza in eastern Lemko Region , existed between 4 November 1918 and 23 January 1919. Being pro- Ukrainian it planned to unite with
7680-451: The Republic's capital from 1 November until the loss of that city to Polish forces on 21 November, followed by Ternopil until late December 1918 and then by Stanyslaviv (present-day Ivano-Frankivsk ) until 26 May 1919. Despite the war, the West Ukrainian People's Republic maintained the stability of the pre-war Austrian administration intact, employing Ukrainian and Polish professionals. The boundaries of counties and communities remained
7808-408: The Ruthenian domain of the Crown with Lviv as the capital. On 17 June 1356 King Casimir III the Great granted it Magdeburg rights , which implied that all city matters were to be resolved by a council elected by the wealthy citizens. In 1362, the High Castle was completely rebuilt with stone replacing the previous wood. In 1358, the city became a seat of Roman Catholic Archdiocese , which initiated
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#17328701971297936-442: The Ukrainian People's Republic as an independent state (Article I) with borders as defined by Articles II and III and under otaman Petliura's leadership. Neither the Polish government in Warsaw nor the exiled Western Ukrainian government agreed to this treaty. The Western Ukrainians continued pressing their interests during the negotiations following World War I at the Paris Peace Conference . These efforts ultimately resulted in
8064-417: The Ukrainian delegation. The Ukrainians opted for the San line as a future demarcation line. In this situation, General Barthelemy presented his compromise proposal on 28 January 1919. The armistice line was to run along the Bug River to Kamionka Strumiłłowa , then along the border of the districts to Bóbrka , then along the Bóbrka-Wybranka railway line, westwards to Mikołajów (leaving Mikołajów itself on
8192-416: The Ukrainian government gave local Jewish militias responsibility for the maintenance of security and order. In the regions of Sambir and Radekhiv approximately a third of the police force was Jewish. Jews fielded their own battalion in the army of the Western Ukrainian National Republic , and Jewish youths worked as scouts for the West Ukrainian military. Most of the Jews cooperating with and serving in
8320-403: The Ukrainian government refused to take Polish hostages but as both the Polish civilian and military resistance to Ukrainian forces grew, Polish civilians were threatened with summary executions by Ukrainian commander in chief for alleged attacks and shots on Ukrainian soldiers. In response, the Polish side proposed a peaceful solution of the conflict and joint Polish-Ukrainian militia to oversee
8448-404: The Ukrainian side), then along the railway line Lviv - Stryi to the border of the disputed territory in the Eastern Carpathians . The Stryi - Lavochne railway line was to remain in Ukrainian hands. This was to be a temporary line, until the matter was settled by the Paris Peace Conference . The Polish side accepted this solution, but the Ukrainian delegation insisted on the 'San line'. As
8576-449: The Ukrainian side. Poland and ZUNR were only to be able to record the volume of production and pay for oil supplies. The project secured Entente interests in the oil basin and was the first step towards its neutralisation. At the time of the proposal, the territory of the basin was under the control of the Ukrainian Galician Army . For the West Ukrainian government, the terms of the Armistice Convention were unfavourable; however, they offered
8704-665: The Ukrainians. Poles didn't support the Ukrainian authorities and set up an underground resistance movement that engaged in acts of sabotage. All fieldwork was stopped, the harvest destroyed and machinery purposely broken; Poles also issued to keep up the morale among the population. In response, Ukrainian authorities engaged in terror, including mass executions, court martial and set up detention centers where some Poles were interned. The conditions in these camps involved unheated wooden barracks, lack of bedding and lack of medical care, resulting in high levels of morbidity from typhoid . Estimated casualties at these camps include nearly 900 at
8832-559: The West Ukrainian People's Republic is often abbreviated as ZUNR (as a direct translation of the Ukrainian abbreviation — ЗУНР). Sometimes it can also be abbreviated as WUPR (from West Ukrainian People's Republic ) or WUNR (from West Ukrainian National Republic ). According to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, the territory claimed by the West Ukrainian People's Republic had about 5.4 million people. Of these, 3,291,000 (approximately 60%) were Ukrainians, 1,351,000 (approximately 25%) were Poles, 660,000 (approximately 12%) were Jews, and
8960-432: The West Ukrainian People's Republic, but was suppressed by the Polish government . On 5 December 1918, the Lemko-Rusyn Republic , centred around the village of Florynka , declared independence. Western Ukrainian Russophiles sentiment prevailed among its inhabitants, who were opposed to a union with the West Ukrainian People's Republic and instead sought unification with Russia. An agreement to unite western Ukraine with
9088-473: The West Ukrainian civil service. From November 1918, ethnic Poles in the civil service who refused to pledge loyalty to the West Ukrainian government either quit en masse or were fired; their positions were filled by large numbers of Jews who were willing to support the Ukrainian state. Jews served as judges and legal consultants in the courts in Ternopil , Stanyslaviv , and Kolomyia . Jews were also able to create their own police units, and in some locations
9216-514: The West Ukrainian government into exile . When the UPR decided late the same year that it would trade the territory for an alliance with Poland against Soviet Russia , the exiled West Ukrainian government broke with the UPR. The exiled government continued its claim until it dissolved in 1923. The coat of arms of the ZUNR was azure , a golden lion rampant. The colours of the flag were blue and yellow, with
9344-594: The West Ukrainian government left for exile in Vienna. The Directorate informed Poland on 2 December that it had no interest in western Ukraine. The West Ukrainian government-in-exile then "rejected the joint institutions" with the Directorate and on 20 December unilaterally repealed the Unification Act. The exiled government resumed the name West Ukrainian People's Republic at the beginning of 1920. In at attempt to stop
9472-523: The West Ukrainian military were Zionists . In general, Jews made up the largest group of non-ethnic Ukrainians who participated in all branches of the West Ukrainian government. The liberal attitude taken towards Jews by the Western Ukrainian government could be attributed to the Habsburg tradition of inter-ethnic tolerance and cooperation leaving its mark on the intelligentsia and military officers of
9600-658: The Western Ukrainians would deprive Kyiv's Ukrainian People's Army , at war with the Russian Whites, of its best soldiers. In November 1919 the Ukrainian Galician Army , without authorization from their government, signed a ceasefire with the White Russians and placed their army under White Russian authority. In talks with Kyiv's Directorate government , Western Ukrainian president Petrushevych argued that
9728-530: The Whites would be defeated anyway but that the alliance with them would strengthen relations with the Western powers, who supported the Whites and would help the Ukrainian military forces for their later struggle against the victorious Soviets. Such arguments were condemned by Petliura . As a result, Petrushevych recognized that the West Ukrainian government could no longer work with Petliura's Directorate and on 15 November
9856-466: The attitude was often that of indifference, and the male Ukrainian population often tried to avoid service in its military. Part of the defeated army found refuge in Czechoslovakia and became known there under the name Ukrajinská brigáda ( Czech ). On 16 July 1919, the remaining army consisting of about 50,000 soldiers, crossed into the territory of the Ukrainian People's Republic and continued
9984-628: The blue in a much lighter shade than in the modern Ukrainian flag. Until November 13, 1918, the state was officially known as the Ukrainian State . After the Unification Act on January 22, 1919, the state became a part of the unified Ukrainian People's Republic and simultaneously became an autonomous region, known as the Western Oblast of the Ukrainian People's Republic . The name of
10112-675: The buildings from the Austrian period, such as the Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet , built in the Viennese neo-Renaissance style. At that time, Lviv was home to a number of renowned Polish-language institutions, such as the Ossolineum , with the second-largest collection of Polish books in the world, the Polish Academy of Arts , the National Museum (since 1908), the Historical Museum of
10240-610: The city's population was Roman Catholics , 28% Jews, and 19% belonged to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church . Linguistically, 86% of the city's population used the Polish language and 11% preferred Ruthenian . In 1773, the first newspaper in Lemberg, Gazette de Leopoli , began to be published. In 1784, a Latin language university was opened with lectures in German , Polish and even Ruthenian ; after closing in 1805, it
10368-789: The city's population). In 1772, following the First Partition of Poland , the region was annexed by the Habsburg monarchy to the Austrian Partition . Known in German as Lemberg , the city became the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . Lemberg grew dramatically during the 19th century, increasing in population from approximately 30,000 at the time of the Austrian annexation in 1772, to 196,000 by 1910 and to 212,000 three years later; rapid population growth brought about an increase in urban squalor and poverty in Austrian Galicia . In
10496-669: The city) lay outside the territory of Poland and that Poland did not have the mandate to establish administrative control in that country, and that Poland was merely the occupying military power of Galicia (as a whole ), whose sovereign remained the Allied Powers and fate would be determined by the Council of Ambassadors at the League of Nations. On 14 March 1923, the Council of Ambassadors decided that Galicia would be incorporated into Poland "whereas it
10624-600: The date forward to 1 November due to reports that the Polish Liquidation Committee was to transfer from Kraków to Lviv . Shortly after the republic proclaimed independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire a popular uprising took place in Lviv, where half of the residents were Polish and did not want to be part of a non-Polish state. A few weeks later Lviv's rebellious Poles received support from Poland. On 9 November, Polish forces attempted to seize
10752-556: The elections, while the Jews, despite declaring their neutrality in the Polish-Ukrainian conflict, participated and were represented by approximately 10 percent of the delegates. Localized anti-Jewish assaults and robberies by Ukrainian peasants and soldiers, while far fewer in number and less brutal than similar actions by Poles, occurred between January and April 1919. The government publicly condemned such actions and intervened in defence of
10880-525: The entire time of its existence there were no cases of mass repressions against national minorities in territories held by the West Ukrainian People's Republic, Hrytsak states that this differentiated the Ukrainian government from that of Poland. Katarzyna Hibel writes that while officially West Ukrainian People's Republic like Poland declared guarantees of rights of its national minorities, in reality, both countries were violating them and treated other foreign nationalities like fifth column . On 15 February 1919
11008-572: The formation of Jewish national councils which, with the approval of the Western Ukrainian government, established the Central Jewish National Council in December 1918 to represent Jewish interests in relation to the Ukrainian government and to the Western allies. The Council of Ministers of the West Ukrainian National Republic bought Yiddish-language textbooks and visual aids for Jewish schools and provided assistance to Jewish victims of
11136-436: The hands of large Polish landowners prior to World War I. The Western Ukrainian People's Republic passed laws that confiscated vast manorial estates from private landlords and distributed this land to landless peasants. Other than in those limited cases, the right to private property was made fundamental and expropriation of lands was forbidden. This differentiated the policies of the West Ukrainian People's Republic from those of
11264-433: The insubordination of its officers shocked the Galician delegates sent to Kyiv. The national movement in western Ukraine was as strong as in other eastern European countries, and the Ukrainian government was able to mobilize over 100,000 men, 40,000 of whom were battle-ready. Despite the strength of the Ukrainian nationalist forces, they received little support and enthusiasm from the local Ukrainian population; in general,
11392-675: The interwar Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance ) dominated the legislative assembly , guided by varying degrees of Greek Catholic , liberal and socialist ideology. Other parties represented included the Ukrainian Radical Party and the Christian Social Party . The ZUNR emerged as a breakaway state amid the dissolution of Austria-Hungary , and in January 1919 nominally united with the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR) as its autonomous Western Oblast . Poland had also claimed this territory, and by July occupied most of it and forced
11520-610: The joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland , which started World War II in September 1939, Lwówek was occupied by Germany until 1945. The first expulsions of Poles were carried out in December 1939. The Poles were sent to a transit camp in Młyniewo , and afterwards deported to the General Government in the more-eastern part of German-occupied Poland, while their houses, workshops, etc. were handed over to German colonists as part of
11648-954: The largest and most influential Ukrainian institutions in the world, including the Prosvita society dedicated to spreading literacy in the Ukrainian language, the Shevchenko Scientific Society , the Dniester Insurance Company and base of the Ukrainian cooperative movement , and it served as the seat of the Ukrainian Catholic Church . However, the Polish-dominated city council blocked Ukrainian attempts to create visible monumets for their own. The most important streets had names referring to Polish history and literature, and only minor roads referred to Ukrainians. Lviv
11776-454: The late 18th and early 19th centuries a large influx of Austrians and German-speaking Czech bureaucrats gave the city a character that by the 1840s was quite Austrian, in its orderliness and in the appearance and popularity of Austrian coffeehouses. During Habsburg rule, Lviv became one of the most important Polish, Ukrainian and Jewish cultural centres. In Lviv, according to the Austrian census of 1910, which listed religion and language, 51% of
11904-626: The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The friendly attitude towards Jews that the Galician Ukrainians had was in stark contrast to the Directorate of Ukraine , which enjoyed no sympathy amongst the Jewish population. The republic did not have its own currency, but rather used the Austro-Hungarian crown . After the act of unification with the Ukrainian People's Republic, the banknotes in circulation were overprinted with nominals in
12032-581: The local archdiocese has developed into the Roman Catholic Metropolis , which since 1375 as diocese had been in Halych . The new metropolis included regional diocese in Lviv, Przemyśl , Chełm , Włodzimierz , Łuck , Kamieniec , as well as Siret and Kijów (see Old Cathedral of St. Sophia, Kyiv ). The first Catholic Archbishop who resided in Lviv was Jan Rzeszowski. In 1434, the Ruthenian domain of
12160-412: The opening of the gate walks a golden lion. Lviv's large coat of arms is a shield, with the coat of arms of the city, crowned with a silver crown with three edges, held by a lion and an ancient warrior. Lviv's flag is a blue square banner with an image of the city emblem and with yellow and blue triangles at the edges. Lviv's logo is an image of five colorful towers in Lviv and the slogan "Lviv — open to
12288-461: The population and the amount of taxes collected was minimal. Most of the government's revenue came from the export of oil and salt. Of the 100 types of postage stamps issued by the republic , all but two were overprints of existing stamps produced by Austria , Austria-Hungary or Bosnia . Although ethnic Poles represented only a small minority in the rural areas, they dominated the urban areas and almost 39% of eastern Galician lands had been in
12416-411: The provisional administration of the Second Polish Republic on the territory of Eastern Galicia on 25 June 1919. The Entente states and the bodies appointed by them ( Council of Ambassadors , Council of the League of Nations ) recognised Eastern Galicia as disputed territory not belonging to the Polish state until 14 March 1923, over which sovereignty was to be exercised by the Entente states under
12544-475: The public safety in the city. In Zolochiv 17 Poles were executed by the Ukrainian authorities. In Briukhovychi Polish railwaymen who refused to comply with Ukrainian orders to work were executed. On 29 May 1919 the archbishop Józef Bilczewski sent a message to Ignacy Paderewski attending the Peace Conference in Paris, asking for help and alleging the brutal murders of Polish priests and civilians by
12672-514: The rest included Rusyns, Germans, Hungarians, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Romani, Armenians and others. The cities and towns of this largely rural region were mostly populated by Poles and Jews, while the Ukrainians dominated the countryside. Out of this region's 44 territorial divisions, Poles were a majority in only one — Lviv county. This would prove problematic for the Ukrainians, because largest city and proclaimed capital Lviv had 49.4% Polish population compared to 19.9% Ukrainian population; and
12800-560: The rest of Ukraine was made as early as 1 December 1918. The government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic officially united with the Ukrainian People's Republic on 22 January 1919 , after which the former was known as the Western Oblast of the Ukrainian People's Republic. This was mostly a symbolic act , however. During the Polish–Ukrainian War , the West Ukrainian army was able to hold off Poland for approximately nine months, but by July 1919, Polish forces had taken over most of
12928-486: The same as they had been during the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The county, regional, and local courts continued to function as they had while the country had been a part of Austria, as did schools, the postal service, telegraphs and railroads. Austrian laws remained temporarily in force. Likewise, the government generally retained the Austrian system of tax collection, although war losses had impoverished
13056-458: The seat of the Lwów Voivodeship . Following Warsaw, Lviv was the second most important cultural and academic centre of interwar Poland. For example, in 1920 Professor Rudolf Weigl of Lwów University developed a vaccine against typhus fever . Furthermore, the geographic location of Lviv gave it an important role in stimulating international trade and fostering the city's and Poland's economic development. A major trade fair named Targi Wschodnie
13184-644: The settlers were polonised by the end of the 15th century, and the city became a Polish island surrounded by the Ruthenian Orthodox population. In 1356, the Armenian diocese was founded centered at the Armenian Cathedral . Lwów was one of two main cultural and religious centers of Armenians in Poland alongside Kamieniec Podolski . In the early modern period , it also became one of the largest concentrations of Scots and Italians in Poland. In 1412,
13312-518: The so-called " Ausgleich " of February 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into a dualist Austria-Hungary and a slow yet steady process of liberalisation of Austrian rule in Galicia started. From 1873, Galicia was de facto an autonomous province of Austria-Hungary , with Polish and Ruthenian as official languages. Germanisation was halted and censorship lifted as well. Galicia was subject to
13440-507: The spread of Latin Church onto the Ruthenian lands. After Casimir had died in 1370, he was succeeded as king of Poland by his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary , who in 1372 put Lviv together with the region of Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia under the administration of his relative Vladislaus II of Opole , Duke of Opole. When in 1387 Władysław retreated from the post of its governor, Galicia-Volhynia became occupied by Hungary , but soon Jadwiga ,
13568-575: The struggle for Ukrainian independence there. The same month, the Western Oblast established a government-in-exile in the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi . Relations between the exiled West Ukrainian government and the Kyiv-based government continued to deteriorate, in part because the Western Ukrainians saw the Poles as the main enemy (with the Russians a potential ally) while Symon Petliura in Kyiv considered
13696-642: The territories of Eastern Galicia. In August 1920, Lviv was attacked by the Red Army under the command of Aleksandr Yegorov and Stalin during the Polish–Soviet War but the city repelled the attack . For the courage of its inhabitants Lviv was awarded the Virtuti Militari cross by Józef Piłsudski on 22 November 1920. On 23 February 1921, the council of the League of Nations declared that Galicia (including
13824-488: The territory claimed by the Western Oblast. Since western Ukraine had a different tradition in its legal, social and political norms, it was to be autonomous within a united Ukraine. Furthermore, western Ukrainians retained their own Ukrainian Galician Army and government structure. Despite the formal union, the Western Ukrainian Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic fought in separate wars. The former
13952-441: The town around 1270 at its present location, choosing Lviv as his residence, and made it the capital of Galicia-Volhynia. Around 1280 Armenians lived in Galicia and were mainly based in Lviv where they had their own archbishop . In the 13th and early 14th centuries, Lviv was largely a wooden city, except for its several Galician-style stone churches. Some of them, like the Church of Saint Nicholas, have survived, although in
14080-521: The town. They captured the High Castle , murdering its defenders. The city itself was not sacked due to the fact that the leader of the revolution Bohdan Khmelnytsky accepted a ransom of 250,000 ducats, and the Cossacks marched north-west towards Zamość . It was one of two major cities in Poland which was not captured during the so-called Deluge : the other one was Gdańsk . At that time, Lviv witnessed
14208-518: The world" under them. The Latin phrase Semper fidelis ('Always faithful') was used as a motto on the former coat of arms of 1936–1939, but was no longer used after the Second World War . Lviv is on the edge of the Roztochia Upland , about 70 kilometres (43 miles) east of the Polish border and 160 km (99 mi) north of the eastern Carpathian Mountains . The average altitude of Lviv
14336-417: The youngest daughter of Louis, and also the ruler of Poland and wife of King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło , unified it directly with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . The city's prosperity during the following centuries is owed to the trade privileges granted to it by Casimir, Queen Jadwiga , and the subsequent Polish monarchs. Germans, Poles and Czechs formed the largest groups of newcomers. Most of
14464-504: Was a settlement in the form of a borough with a characteristic layout element—an elongated market square. Daniel's foundation of the stronghold was its next reconstruction after the Batu Khan invasion of 1240. Lviv was invaded by the Mongols in 1261. Various sources relate the events, which range from the destruction of the castle to a complete razing of the town. All sources agree that it
14592-552: Was a short-lived polity that controlled most of Eastern Galicia from November 1918 to July 1919. It included major cities of Lviv , Ternopil , Kolomyia , Drohobych , Boryslav , Stanyslaviv and right-bank Peremyshl . Apart from lands of Eastern Galicia, it also claimed the northern part of Bukovyna and the Carpathian Ruthenia . Politically, the Ukrainian National Democratic Party (the precursor of
14720-677: Was also a major centre of Jewish culture, in particular as a centre of the Yiddish language , and was the home of the world's first Yiddish-language daily newspaper, the Lemberger Togblat , established in 1904. In the Battle of Galicia at the early stages of the First World War , Lviv was captured by the Russian army in September 1914 following the Battle of Gnila Lipa . The Lemberg Fortress fell on 3 September. The historian Pál Kelemen provided
14848-509: Was considered by Poland to be one of its most important cities. The oil reserves near Lviv at Drohobych and Boryslav in the upper Dniester River were among the largest in Europe. Rail connections to Russian-ruled Ukraine or Romania were few; these included Brody on a line from Lviv to the upper Styr River , Pidvolochysk on a line from Ternopil to Proskuriv in Podolia , and a line along
14976-434: Was decided that eastern Galicia would be incorporated into Poland "taking into consideration that Poland has recognized that in regard to the eastern part of Galicia ethnographic conditions fully deserve its autonomous status." The following day, the government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic disbanded. The Polish government reneged on its promise of autonomy for eastern Galicia. The Paris Peace Conference approved
15104-483: Was established in 1921. In the academic year 1937–1938, there were 9,100 students attending five institutions of higher education, including Lwów University as well as the Polytechnic . West Ukrainian People%27s Republic The West Ukrainian People's Republic ( Ukrainian : Західноукраїнська Народна Республіка (ЗУНР) , romanized : Zakhidnoukrainska Narodna Respublika (ZUNR) ; see other names )
15232-549: Was no working synagogue in Lviv after the final one was closed by the Soviets . The greater part of the once-predominant Polish population was sent to Poland during a population exchange between Poland and Soviet Ukraine in 1944–46. The historical heart of the city, with its cobblestone streets and architectural assortment of Renaissance , Baroque , Neo-classicism and Art Nouveau , survived Soviet and German occupations during World War II largely unscathed. The historic city centre
15360-550: Was on the orders of the Mongol general Burundai . The Shevchenko Scientific Society says that Burundai issued the order to raze the city. The Galician-Volhynian chronicle states that in 1261 "Said Buronda to Vasylko: 'Since you are at peace with me then raze all your castles'". Basil Dmytryshyn states that the order was implied to be the fortifications as a whole: "If you wish to have peace with me, then destroy [all fortifications of] your towns". After Daniel's death, King Lev rebuilt
15488-543: Was orderly and well-organized. This contrasted with the chaotic state of the Ukrainian governments that arose on the territory of the former Russian Empire. Historian Yaroslav Hrytsak stated that the Ukrainian nationalism that developed before the First World War in Austria was anti-Polish, but neither "very xenophobic" nor antisemitic. In November 1918 a decision was made to include cabinet-level state secretaries of Polish, Jewish and German affairs. According to Hrytsak during
15616-497: Was preoccupied with a conflict with Poland , while the latter struggled with Soviet and Russian forces. Relations between the western Ukrainian polity and the Kyiv-based Ukrainian People's Republic were at times strained. The leadership of the former tended to be more conservative in orientation. Well-versed in the culture of the Austrian parliamentary system and an orderly approach to government, they looked upon
15744-691: Was proclaimed with Lviv as its capital. 2,300 Ukrainian soldiers from the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (Sichovi Striltsi), which had previously been a corps in the Austrian Army, made an attempt to take over Lviv. The city's Polish majority opposed the Ukrainian declaration and began to fight against the Ukrainian troops. During this combat an important role was taken by young Polish city defenders called Lwów Eaglets . The Ukrainian forces withdrew outside Lwów's confines by 21 November 1918, after which elements of Polish soldiers began to loot and burn much of
15872-445: Was reciprocated by many members of the Jewish community. Although Jewish political organizations officially declared their neutrality in the Polish-Ukrainian struggle, many individual Jews offered their support or sympathized with the West Ukrainian government in its conflict with Poland. Jewish officers of the defunct Austro-Hungarian army joined the West Ukrainian military, and Jewish judges, lawyers, doctors and railroad employees joined
16000-470: Was reopened in 1817. By 1825, German became the sole language of instruction. Lemberg University was opened by Maria Theresa in 1784. By 1787, her successor Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor opened "Studium Ruthenum" for students who did not know enough Latin to take regular courses. During the 19th century, the Austrian administration attempted to Germanise the city's educational and governmental institutions. Many cultural organisations which did not have
16128-504: Was surrounded by the Ottomans who also failed to conquer it. Three years later, the Battle of Lwów (1675) took place near the city. Lviv was captured for the first time since the Middle Ages by a foreign army in 1704 when Swedish troops under King Charles XII entered the city after a short siege. The plague of the early 18th century caused the death of about 10,000 inhabitants (40% of
16256-627: Was to serve as the legislative body. Yevhen Petrushevych , the chairman of the Council and a former member of the Austro-Hungarian parliament, automatically became the Republic's president. Subordinated to him was the State Secretariat , whose members included Kost Levytsky (president of the secretariat and the Republic's minister of finance), Dmytro Vitovsky (head of the armed forces), Lonhyn Tsehelsky (secretary of internal affairs), and Oleksander Barvinsky (secretary of education and religious affairs), among others. The country essentially had
16384-608: Was used to transport goods. In the early 20th century, the Poltva was covered over in areas where it flows through the city; the river flows directly beneath Lviv's central street, Liberty Avenue [ uk ] , and the Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet . Lviv's climate is humid continental ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with cold winters and warm summers. The average temperatures are −3 °C (27 °F) in January and 18 °C (64 °F) in July. The average annual rainfall
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