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77-642: (Redirected from Lutece ) Lutèce is the French form of Lutetia , the Roman city where Paris now stands. The name also refers to: Lutèce (restaurant) , a restaurant in New York City The Lutece Twins , a pair of characters in the 2013 video game BioShock Infinite Ulmus 'Nanguen' , a hybrid elm cultivar resistant to Dutch elm disease, released to commerce circa 2001 by INRA, France. Topics referred to by

154-456: A base of cement. When excavated in the 19th century, the chalk builders' marks were still visible on the floor. The theatre had two groups of seating; the maenianum , or general audience seating, higher up and farther back, and the "maenianum" of the podium, for the notables, in front of the orchestra stage. It had a separate entrance, and was accessed by a covered corridor. There were also several vomitoria , or underground passageways, to

231-582: A large early Gallic settlement in Nanterre , in the suburbs of Paris. This is composed of a large area of several main streets and hundreds of houses over 15 hectares. Critics also point out the lack of archaeological finds from the pre-Roman era on the Ile de la Cité. Other scholars dispute the idea that the settlement was in Nanterre. They point to the description given by Julius Caesar, who came to Lutetia to negotiate with

308-606: A metre. The residential streets of Lutetia, unlike the boulevards, were irregular and not as-well maintained as they were the responsibility of the home-owners, not the city. Traces of several of these early residential neighbourhoods, dating to the beginning of the 1st century AD, particularly on the Rue de l'Abbé de l'Épée, rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, and the garden of the Êcole des Mines have been discovered. The houses generally had wood frames covered with clay. The floors were covered with yellow clay or packed earth. Excavations showed that

385-517: A pool of heated water. The room was heated by a hypocaust , an under-floor system of tunnels filled with hot air, heated by furnaces tended by slaves. After a period of time there, bathers would move to the frigidarium , which had a cold-water pool and baths, or to the tepidarium , which had the same features at room-temperature. They played an important social and political role in Lutetia as in other Roman cities. They were free of charge, or accessible for

462-496: A revolt near the end of Julius Caesar 's Gallic Wars , the Battle of Lutetia was fought with the local tribe. The Gallic forces were led by Vercingetorix 's lieutenant Camulogenus . They burned the oppidum and the bridges to keep the Romans from crossing. The Romans, led by Titus Labienus , one of Caesar's generals, marched south to Melun , crossed the river there, marched back toward

539-407: A role in displaying the power and wealth of the local inhabitants and as a line of demarcation between the town and the countryside. According to Jane McIntosh, the "impressive ramparts with elaborate gateways ... were probably as much for show and for controlling the movement of people and goods as for defense". Some of the oppida fortifications were built on an immense scale. Construction of

616-461: A small fee, and contained not only baths but also bars, places to rest, meeting rooms and libraries. The original baths were probably destroyed during the first invasion by the Franks and Alamans in 275, then rebuilt. The frigidarium , with its vault intact, and the caldarium are the main remaining rooms. They were originally covered on the inside with mosaics, marble or frescoes. The northern side

693-455: A time when the province was threatened by barbarian invasion. Much of the remaining building stone was reused in the city wall of Paris constructed by Philippe-Auguste in the 12th century. The site was discovered in 1867-68 during the construction of Rue Monge by Louis-Napoleon, and excavations were begun in 1870. A bus depot was planned to be built on the same site, but a coalition of notable Parisans, including Victor Hugo , insisted that

770-715: Is a conventional term for large fortified settlements associated with the Celtic La Tène culture . In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico , Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age settlements he encountered in Gaul during the Gallic Wars in 58 to 52 BC as oppida . Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an oppidum , the main requirements emerge. They were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and

847-424: Is also reflected in the archaeological evidence. According to Fichtl (2018), in the first century BC Gaul was divided into around sixty civitates (the term used by Caesar) or 'autonomous city-states', which were mostly organized around one or more oppida . In some cases, "one of these can be regarded effectively as a capital." Oppida continued in use until the Romans began conquering Iron Age Europe. Even in

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924-674: Is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at Glauberg (6th or 5th century BC) have been called oppida . Such wider use of the term is, for example, common in the Iberian archaeology; in the descriptions of the Castro culture it is commonly used to refer to the settlements going back to the 9th century BC. The Spanish word castro , also used in English, means 'a walled settlement' or 'hill fort', and this word

1001-740: Is contained in the Breton word logod , the Welsh llygod "mice", and the Irish luch , genitive luchad "mouse". Traces of Neolithic habitations, dating as far back as 4500 BC, have been found along the Seine at Bercy , and close to the Louvre . The earliest inhabitants lived on the river plain, raising animals and farming. In the Bronze Age and Iron Age , they settled in villages, in houses made of wood and clay. Their life

1078-543: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Lutetia In the first century BC, the settlement was conquered by Romans and a city began to be built. Remains of the Roman forum, amphitheatre, aqueduct and baths can still be seen. In the fifth century it became the capital of the Merovingian dynasty of French kings, and thereafter was known as Paris. Many artifacts from Lutetia have been recovered and are on display at

1155-453: Is flexible and fortified sites as small as 2 hectares (4.9 acres) have been described as oppida . However, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or circular rampart dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many oppida were built. In European archaeology, the term oppida

1232-655: Is often used interchangeably with oppidum by archaeologists. What was swept away in Northern Europe by the Roman Conquest was itself a dynamic indigenous culture extending across the transalpine landmass, usually known today as that of the Celts. The proto-urban Oppida – a Latin word used by Julius Caesar himself – remain one of the most striking manifestations of this pre-Roman northern European civilization. According to pre-historian John Collis , oppida extend as far east as

1309-477: The insulae of Roman cities (Variscourt). Little is known, however, about the purpose of any public buildings. The main features of the oppida are the walls and gates, the spacious layout, and usually a commanding view of the surrounding area. The major difference with earlier structures was their much larger size. Earlier hill forts were mostly just a few hectares in area, whilst oppida could encompass several dozen or even hundreds of hectares. They also played

1386-570: The Bituriges and 12 of the Helvetii , twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as oppida . A similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian Livy , who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements. In his work Geographia , Ptolemy listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements. However, research has shown many of

1463-504: The Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over. Around 200 oppida are known today. Central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently. Oppida feature a wide variety of internal structures, from continuous rows of dwellings ( Bibracte ) to more widely spaced individual estates ( Manching ). Some oppida had internal layouts resembling

1540-761: The Musée Carnavalet . The settlement is attested in Ancient Greek as Loukotokía (Λoυκoτοκία) by Strabo and Leukotekía (Λευκοτεκία) by Ptolemy . Likely origins are Celtic root lut- meaning "a swamp or marsh" + suffix -ecia , It survives today in the Scottish Gaelic lòn ("pool, meadow") and the Breton loudour ("dirty"). A less likely origin is the Celtic root *luco-t- , which means "mouse" and -ek(t)ia , double collectiv suffix, meaning "the mice" and which

1617-505: The Roman legions could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities who made decisions that affected large numbers of people, such as the appointment of Vercingetorix as head of the Gallic revolt in 52 BC. Caesar named 28 oppida . By 2011, only 21 of these had been positively identified by historians and archaeologists: either there was a traceable similarity between

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1694-693: The Trinovantes and at times the Catuvellauni , made use of natural defences enhanced with earthworks to protect itself. The site was protected by two rivers on three of its sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River forming the southern boundary; the extensive bank and ditch earthworks topped with palisades were constructed to close off the open western gap between these two river valleys. These earthworks are considered

1771-488: The 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretching from Britain and Iberia in the west to the edge of the Hungarian Plain in the east. These settlements continued to be used until the Romans conquered Southern and Western Europe. Many subsequently became Roman-era towns and cities, whilst others were abandoned. In regions north of the rivers Danube and Rhine , such as most of Germania , where

1848-501: The 2nd century. Like many other buildings on the left bank in the 4th century its stone was used in the building of the wall and new buildings on the Île-de-la-Cité. It was excavated and recreated by Theodore Vacquer between 1861 and 1884. The slope of Mt. Genevieve was used to provide elevation for the semi-circular seating. The back of the stage faced onto to the Roman road and was decorated with arches and columns. The "pulpitum", or front stage, and "parascenum", or back stage, rested on

1925-666: The 7km-long murus gallicus at Manching required an estimated 6,900 m of stones for the façade alone, up to 7.5 tons of iron nails, 90,000 m of earth and stones for the fill between the posts and 100,000 m of earth for the ramp. In terms of labour, some 2,000 people would have been needed for 250 days. The 5.5km-long murus gallicus of Bibracte may have required 40 to 60 hectares of mature oak woodland to be clear-felled for its construction. However, size and construction of oppida varied considerably. Typically oppida in Bohemia and Bavaria were much larger than those found in

2002-405: The Gallic settlement would remain on the island. They argue that a settlement in Nanterre did not necessarily exclude that the Île-de-la-Cité was the site of the oppidum of Lutetia; both settlements could have existed at the same time. Finally, they argue that, while Gallic settlements sometimes relocated to a new site, the new sites were usually given a new name. It would be very unusual to transfer

2079-493: The Ile de Cité as the site of the Gallic settlement also address the issue of the lack of archaeological evidence on the island. The original oppidum and bridges were burned by the Parisii to keep them out of the hands of the Romans. The houses of the Parisii were made of wood and clay. Since then every square metre of the island has been dug up and rebuilt, often using the same materials, multiple times, making it unlikely that traces of

2156-448: The Ile de la Cite. The streets and squares were laid out in blocks ("insulae") of 300 Roman feet (88.8 m) square. As a result the modern Rue Saint Martin and Rue Saint-Denis, which were both laid out in Roman times, are 600 Roman feet apart. Excavations of the streets have uncovered the ruts in the roads from the wheels of chariots and wagons. The roads were regularly repaired with fresh stones, gradually raising their height by as much as

2233-464: The Latin and the modern name of the locality (e.g. Civitas Aurelianorum - Orléans ), or excavations had provided the necessary evidence (e.g. Alesia ). Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, Geneva , for example, was referred to as an oppidum , but no fortifications dating to this period have yet been discovered there. Caesar also refers to 20 oppida of

2310-460: The Lutetians to abandon a large part of the city on the left bank, and to move to the Île de la Cité . Vestiges of Roman buildings on the island, including baths, were found under the parvis of Notre-Dame in 1965 and can be seen today. The rampart was about two metres tall with a wooden walkway and, like most of the buildings on the island, was built from stone brought from the demolished buildings on

2387-629: The Roman occupation of Lutetia appeared at the end of the 1st century BC, during the reign of the Emperor Augustus. By the beginning of the 1st century AD, the construction of the Roman city was underway. The Roman city was laid out along the main Cardo Maximus street, perpendicular to the Seine. It began at the heights of the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank, went downhill along

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2464-416: The Rue des Ecoles. The baths originally occupied a much larger area of about 300 x 400 Roman feet, a standard Roman city block, covering about one hectare. Clients entered the baths near the modern Rue des Ecoles into a large courtyard lined with shops. They would cross the courtyard to the entrance of the baths, change their clothes, and go first into the caldarium , a hot and steamy room with benches and

2541-463: The ancient name. The " Lutetian " is, in the geologic timescale , a stage or age in the Eocene Epoch. The asteroid 21 Lutetia , discovered in 1852 by Hermann Goldschmidt , is named after the city. Oppidum An oppidum ( pl. : oppida ) is a large fortified Iron Age settlement or town. Oppida are primarily associated with the Celtic late La Tène culture , emerging during

2618-729: The archeological crypt under the Parvis in front of Notre-Dame Cathedral, Place John Paul II. In the 4th century, Lutetia remained an important bulwark defending the Empire against the Germanic invaders. In 357–358 Julian , as caesar of the Western empire and general of the Gallic legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris. After defeating the Alemanni in a major battle of Strasbourg in 357, he defended against Germanic invaders coming from

2695-406: The building, and two lower collateral aisles, separated from the nave by rows of columns. At the west end was the temple devoted to the official gods. Its facade with a portico of pillars with triangular pediment faced to the east, the tradition for Roman temples. The amphitheatre is located near the intersection of Rue Monge and Rue de Navarre. It was about 100 x 130 m in plan, making it one of

2772-404: The burial vessel. In the later years of the Empire, when the pressure of invading Germanic tribes led to the abandonment of the old monuments, a new necropolis, named for Saint-Marcel, was established near the modern Avenue des Gobelins and Boulevard du Port Royal, along the Roman main road leading to Italy. In this necropolis the tombs were mostly composed of stone taken from the monuments in

2849-401: The city had an important plaster industry; plaster was used to simulate stone, as a covering, or in the form of bricks and tiles. The houses of the wealthy often had an underfloor heating system and their own bath suite. Their interior walls were covered with plaster, and often painted with frescoes, some traces of which have been recovered (see gallery). They frequently had a reception room on

2926-478: The city, and decisively defeated the Parisii. The location of the final battle, like the location of the oppidum, is disputed. It was fought near a river, which some historians interpret as the Seine , and others as the Yonne ; and near a large marsh; a feature of the countryside near both the Île-de-la-Cité and Narbonne. Whatever its location was, the battle was decisive; Lutetia became a Roman town. The first traces of

3003-516: The civic basilica, containing a tribunal, and a temple. Gradually the city was furnished with a forum, and baths, all on the upper slope of Mount Sainte-Genevieve. It was not the capital of the Roman province ( Sens had that distinction) and it was to the west of the most important Roman north-south road between Provence and the Rhine . The importance of the city was due in large part to its position as an intersection of land and water trade routes. One of

3080-464: The earlier necropolis of Saint-Jacques. One of the tombs there, dating from the Third Century AD, is notable for the first recorded use of the name "Paris" for the city. The tombs at Saint Marcel contain a variety of ceramic and glass objects from the workshops of the city, placed at the foot of the deceased. The first symbols of Christian burials, in the 5th century, were also found here. Lutetia

3157-533: The earth and stone ramparts, called Pfostenschlitzmauer (post slot wall) or " Preist -type wall". In western Europe, especially Gaul, the murus gallicus (a timber frame nailed together, with a stone facade and earth/stone fill), was the dominant form of rampart construction. Dump ramparts, that is earth unsupported by timber, were common in Britain and were later adopted in France. They have been found in particular in

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3234-523: The ground floor and bedrooms upstairs, accessed by a stairway, as well as a cellar which sometimes had its own well. Several houses were grouped together with a common courtyard. In May 2006, a Roman road was found during expansion of the University of Pierre and Marie Curie campus. Additionally, remains of private houses dating from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) containing heated floors were found. The owners were wealthy enough to own baths which

3311-430: The guild of boatmen, the most influential guild in the city, and was found in the Île-de-la-Cité. It depicted both Roman and Gallic deities in a series of blocks stacked into a column. Several scientific discoveries have been named after Lutetia. The element lutetium was named in honor of its discovery in a Paris laboratory, and the characteristic building material of the city of Paris, Lutetian Limestone , derives from

3388-466: The hill of Mons Mercurius thereafter known as Mons Martyrum (Martyrs' Hill, or Montmartre ). According to tradition, he carried his head to Saint-Denis , where the Basilica of Saint-Denis was later built. The mid third century brought a series of invasions of Gaul by two Germanic peoples, the Franks and the Alemanni , which threatened Lutetia. The city at the time had no fortifications. Portions of

3465-522: The island and connected the bridges. During the early, or High Roman Empire, the major Roman necropolis, or cemetery, was located near the Cardo Maximus (Main Street), close to the exit of the city and some distance from the nearest residences. The Necropolis of Saint-Jacques was close to the modern intersection of Avenue Saint-Michel and Avenue Denfert-Rochereau. It occupied a space of about four hectares, and

3542-463: The largest in Gaul. It could accommodate as many as 17000 spectators. It had a stage and backdrop used for the presentation of plays, along with a larger space suitable for the combat of gladiators and of animals, and other large-scale festivities. It was probably built near the end of the 1st century AD. In the early 4th century its stone was used in the construction of the fortress on the Île de Ia Cité, at

3619-465: The leaders of the Gallic tribes. He wrote that the oppidum which he visited was on an island. In his account of the war in Gaul Caesar wrote that, when the Romans later laid siege to Lutetia, "the inhabitants had burned their structures and the wooden bridges which served to cross the two branches of the river around their island fortress," which appears to describe the Île de la Cité. Proponents of

3696-414: The left bank settlement, including the baths and amphitheatre, were hurriedly abandoned, and the stones used to construct ramparts around the Île de la Cité. The city was reduced in size from one hundred hectares during the high Roman Empire to ten to fifteen hectares on the left bank, and ten hectares on the Île de la Cité. A new civic basilica and baths were built on the island whose vestiges can be seen in

3773-455: The left bank. A modest headquarters or "Palace" was constructed at the west end of the island, where the Palais de Justice is today. One was the residence and headquarters of the Roman military commander, and the temporary residence of two Emperors during the military campaigns. It was probably here that Julian was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 361. Another important building on the island

3850-661: The localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the oppidum of Brenodurum at Bern , which was confirmed by an archaeological discovery. In archaeology and prehistory, the term oppida now refers to a category of settlement; it was first used in that sense by Paul Reinecke , Joseph Déchelette and Wolfgang Dehn  [ de ] in reference to Bibracte , Manching , and Závist . In particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria: In current usage, most definitions of oppida emphasise

3927-454: The modern Rue Saint-Jacques , across a marshy area to the bridge connecting to the Île de la Cité ; across the island, and across a bridge to a smaller enclave on the right bank. The low-lying land along the river was suitable for farming; and since it was easily flooded, the road was raised. The Cardo Maximus met the Decumanus, or main east-west street, located at modern rue Soufflot. Here was

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4004-727: The most extensive of their kind in Britain, and together with the two rivers enclosed the high status farmsteads, burial grounds, religious sites, industrial areas, river port and coin mint of the Trinovantes. Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. According to Jane McIntosh, in about 5,000 BC during the Neolithic between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe; in the late (pre-Roman) Iron Age (2nd and 1st centuries BC) it had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million. Outside Greece and Italy, which were more densely populated,

4081-625: The most striking archeological finds from the early period is the Pillar of the Boatmen which was erected by the corporation of local river merchants and sailors and dedicated to Tiberius . Other major public works projects and monuments were built in the 2nd century AD including an aqueduct. In the 3rd century, according to legend, Christianity was brought to the town by St Denis , and his companions Rusticus and Eleuthere. In about 250 he and two companions were said to have been arrested and decapitated on

4158-464: The name of Lutetia from the Nanterre settlement to a new Roman town on the Île-de-la-Cité. They also argue that if Lutetia had not already existed where Paris is today, the new Roman city would have been given a Latin, not a Gallic name. This seems to support the argument that Lutetia was in fact located at the center of modern Paris. The Parisii first agreed to submit to Caesar and Rome, but in 52 BC they joined other tribes, led by Vercingetorix , in

4235-429: The north and west of France. Typically oppida in Britain are small, but there is a group of large oppida in the south east; though oppida are uncommon in northern Britain, Stanwick stands out as an unusual example as it covers 350 hectares (860 acres). Dry stone walls supported by a bank of earth, called Kelheim ramparts, were characteristic of oppida in central Europe. To the east, timbers were often used to support

4312-475: The north-west and central regions of France and were combined with wide moats ("Type Fécamp"). Oppida can be divided into two broad groups, those around the Mediterranean coast and those further inland. The latter group were larger, more varied, and spaced further apart. In Britain the oppidum of Camulodunon (modern Colchester , built between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD), tribal capital of

4389-466: The north. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360 in Lutetia. Later Valentinian I resided in Lutetia for a brief period (365–366). The first documented bishop of Paris was Victorinus , in 346. The first council of Bishops in Gaul convened in the city in 360. When Saint Martin visited the city in 360, there was a cathedral, near the site of Notre-Dame de Paris. The end of the Roman Empire in

4466-400: The outer walls on the north, south sides and west sides, were arcades sheltering rows of small shops. At the west end was an underground gallery, or cryptoporticus . The civic basilica , essentially the town hall, occupied the east of the forum, It contained the courts where political, social and financial issues were discussed and decided. It had a central nave, higher than other parts of

4543-565: The populations remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD. Oppidum is a Latin word meaning 'defended (fortified) administrative centre or town', originally used in reference to non-Roman towns as well as provincial towns under Roman control. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum , 'enclosed space', possibly from the Proto-Indo-European * pedóm- , 'occupied space' or 'footprint'. In modern archaeological usage oppidum

4620-526: The presence of fortifications, so they are different from undefended farms or settlements, and urban characteristics, marking them as separate from hill forts . They are often described as 'the first cities north of the Alps', though earlier examples of urbanism in temperate Europe are also known. The 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the period known as La Tène . A notional minimum size of 15 to 25 hectares (37 to 62 acres) has often been suggested, but that

4697-433: The present College de France on the "Cardo" or rue Saint-Jacques. They were of about two hectares, even larger than Cluny, and included a Palaestra , or large outdoor exercise area. Vestiges of the circular hot water pool and the cold water pool have survived, along with the hypocaust heating system. Traces were also found of marble wall coverings, frescoes and bronze fixtures. Others were found in rue Gay-Lussac and on

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4774-409: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Lutèce . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lutèce&oldid=1089661738 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

4851-483: The seats of the spectators. The arena probably had some form of covering over the seats to protect spectators from rain. The Thermes de Cluny , the grand public baths, now part of the Musée de Cluny , are the largest and best-preserved vestige of Roman Lutetia and date from the late 1st or early 2nd century AD. They were at the junction of the two major Roman roads, between Boulevard Saint-Michel, Boulevard Saint-Germaine, and

4928-455: The settlement to dominate nearby trade routes and may also have been important as a symbol of control of the area. For instance at the oppidum of Ulaca in Spain the height of the ramparts is not uniform: those overlooking the valley are considerably higher than those facing towards the mountains in the area. The traditional explanation is that the smaller ramparts were unfinished because the region

5005-458: The vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. While hill forts could accommodate up to 1,000 people, oppida in the late Iron Age could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants. Oppida originated in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most were built on fresh sites, usually on an elevated position. Such a location would have allowed

5082-472: The vestiges be saved. They were declared a monument, and partially rebuilt beginning in 1915-16. The Roman theatre of Lutetia was located where the Lycée Saint-Louis is today, along Boulevard Saint-Michel. It occupied one of the central blocks of the Roman city, three hundred Roman feet on each side. It was probably built in the second part of the 1st century AD, based on coins found; it was renovated in

5159-412: The west, Rue Saint-Jacques on the east, rue Cujas to the north and Rue G. Lussac and rue Malbranch to the south. It was two Roman blocks wide and one block long, 177.6 x 88.8 m. Only a small part of a wall of the old forum remains above ground today, but the foundations have been extensively excavated since the 19th century. The forum was surrounded by a wall, with entrances on the north and south. Along

5236-454: The west, and the creation of the Merovingian dynasty in the 5th century, with its capital placed in Paris by Clovis I , confirmed the new role and name for the city. The adjective Parisiacus had already been used for centuries. Lutetia had gradually become Paris, the city of the Parisii. The Forum of Lutetia was in the centre of the city, between the modern streets of Boulevard Saint-Michel on

5313-515: Was a milestone in the urbanisation of the continent as they were among the first large settlements north of the Alps that could genuinely be described as towns or cities (earlier sites include the 'Princely Seats' of the Hallstatt period ). Caesar pointed out that each tribe of Gaul would have several oppida but that they were not all of equal importance, implying a form of settlement hierarchy , with some oppida serving as regional capitals. This

5390-516: Was a status symbol among Roman citizens. The source of the aqueduct was in the hills outside the city at Rungis and Wissous in the present department of the Essonne where a collection tank was excavated. The aqueduct was built in the second half of the 1st century AD mainly to supply the monumental public baths of Cluny. The aqueduct could deliver an estimated 2000 m of water a day. The masonry and cement conduit, about 1/2 metre wide and 3/4 metre deep,

5467-459: Was both a trading centre for art works, through its access to water and land routes, and, later, the home of workshops ceramics and other decorative works. Sculpture was widely used in monuments, particularly in the several necropoli, or Roman cemeteries, in the outskirts of the city. The Pillar of the Boatmen was donated to the city in about 14-17 AD (dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius ) by

5544-460: Was closely attached to the river, which served as a trade route to other parts of Europe. The original location of the early capital of the Parisii is still disputed by historians. They had traditionally placed the main settlement on the Île de la Cité , where the bridges of the major trading routes of the Parisii crossed the Seine. This view was challenged after the discovery between 1994 and 2005 of

5621-527: Was in use from the beginning of the first until about the fourth century AD. About four hundred tombs, a fraction of the tombs that were once there, have been excavated. Tombs were often placed one above the other. Some remains were buried in stone sepulchres, others in wooden coffins, others simply in the ground. It was a common practice to bury the dead with some items of their belongings, usually some of their clothing and particularly their shoes, placed in vases. Sometimes items of food and silverware were placed in

5698-496: Was invaded by the Romans; however, archaeologist John Collis dismisses this explanation because the inhabitants managed to build a second rampart extending the site by 20 hectares (49 acres) to cover an area of 80 hectares (200 acres). Instead he believes the role of the ramparts as a status symbol may have been more important than their defensive qualities. While some oppida grew from hill forts, by no means all of them had significant defensive functions. The development of oppida

5775-553: Was mainly below ground level over the distance of 26 kilometres to the city. The major obstacle it faced was crossing the valley of the river Bièvre where the conduit was raised on arches, some of which still exist in the Valley of Arcueil-Cachan. Vestiges of the aqueduct have been discovered in several places including under the Institute Curie. Beginning in 307 AD, the increasing number of invasions of Gaul by Germanic tribes forced

5852-402: Was occupied by two gymnasia and at the centre of the facade was a monumental fountain. Beneath there are several lower rooms with vaulted roofs. The drain for emptying the frigidarium pool is still visible that encircled the baths and ran into a main drain located under Boulevard Saint-Michel. Remains of other baths have been discovered. The best-preserved were found in the 19th century within

5929-558: Was the civic basilica, fulfilling the judicial functions transferred from the Left Bank. It stood between the modern Rue de la Cité and the Tribunal de Commerce , near where the flower market is today. It was discovered in 1906 during the construction of the Paris Metro station. It was 70 x 35 m with a central nave. The entrance was probably on the Rue de la Cité, the Cardo Maximus which crossed

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