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154-611: José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898 – April 30, 1980) was a Puerto Rican journalist, politician, statesman and was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico , regarded as the "Architect of the Puerto Rico Commonwealth." In 1948 he was the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico , spearheading an administration that engineered profound economic, political and social reforms; accomplishments that were internationally lauded by many politicians, statesmen, political scientists and economists of
308-418: A tri-racial , Spanish-speaking , Christian society, descending in varying degrees from Indigenous Taíno natives , Southwestern European colonists , and West and Central African slaves , freedmen , and free Blacks . As citizens of a U.S. territory , Puerto Ricans have automatic birthright American citizenship , and are considerably influenced by American culture . The population of Puerto Ricans
462-558: A 54% majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referenda, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. The fifth Puerto Rican status referendum of 2017 ,
616-520: A Puerto Rican population count, especially if they have ancestry of at least one parent born in target country, for example people of Dominican, Cuban, or Mexican etc ancestry born in Puerto Rico and later returning to their ancestral country- wouldn't be counted in a Puerto Rican population count, but likely rather counted as a "returning emigrant". Similarly, Puerto Ricans born in the mainland United States would be counted under an "American" statistic, so
770-491: A campaign, calling on civilians for support. Victoria, Muñoz Marín's youngest daughter joined the group, which he didn't oppose. The day before the party had an assembly to elect its candidates, Muñoz Marín announced his decision not to run for another term. He recommended Roberto Sánchez Vilella , his Secretary of State , for the party's candidacy. When the crowd called for "four more years", Muñoz Marín said, "I am not your strength ... You are your own strength." Sánchez Vilella
924-547: A change imposed by the American colonial government. Muñoz Marín's knowledge of English allowed him to be advanced to second grade, although he had some difficulty the next year. In 1908, Muñoz Marín was enrolled in a small private school in San Juan. Working with the teacher Pedro Moczó, in two years he covered all the material normally taught to students between third and eighth grade, passing tests with good grades. In 1910, his father
1078-402: A change in the gallbladder wall due to excess cholesterol ), often cause no symptoms and are thus often detected in this way. Tests used to investigate for gallbladder disease include blood tests and medical imaging . A full blood count may reveal an increased white cell count suggestive of inflammation or infection. Tests such as bilirubin and liver function tests may reveal if there
1232-621: A discrete genetic population. Native American admixture in Puerto Ricans ranges between about 5% and 35%, with around 15% being the approximate average. Puerto Rico's self-identified indigenous population therefore consist mostly of indigenous-identified persons (oftentimes with predominant Indigenous ancestry, but not always) from within the genetically mestizo population of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, even when most other Puerto Ricans of their exact same mixture would identify either as mixed-race or even as white. For its 2020 census,
1386-477: A dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. Home to a sizeable deaf community , the actual numbers are unknown due to unavailable source data. A 1986 estimate places
1540-509: A fee to be classified as white, which was the opposite of " one-drop rule " in US society after the American Civil War. Studies have shown that the racial ancestry mixture of the average Puerto Rican (regardless of racial self-identity) is about 64% European, 21% African, and 15% Native Taino, with European ancestry strongest on the west side of the island and West African ancestry strongest on
1694-545: A group of Puerto Rican nationalists attacked the governor's mansion and attempted to assassinate Muñoz Marín, by firing shots into his office. Muñoz Marín mobilized the Puerto Rican National Guard under the command of Puerto Rico Adjutant General Luis R. Esteves and sent them to confront the Nationalists in various towns, besides San Juan , such as Jayuya and Utuado . He ordered the police to arrest many of
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#17328558988501848-417: A hollow grey-blue organ that sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver . In adults, the gallbladder measures approximately 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to 3.9 inches) in length and 4 centimetres (1.6 in) in diameter when fully distended. The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres (1.8 imperial fluid ounces). The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into
2002-610: A housing shortage. During the war he established low-interest scholarships and loans for the residents who were not drafted. To address health issues, he established free public clinics, which opened throughout Puerto Rico. In 1943 Puerto Rico would pass a Civil Rights Act. In 1944 the Popular Democratic Party won a majority again in the election, repeating the political victory of the previous elections. In 1947, Congress approved legislation allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor. Muñoz Marín successfully campaigned for
2156-575: A legal separation in 1938. During his first campaign for the Puerto Rico Senate in 1932, Muñoz Marín was accused of being a narcotics addict; he was alleged to be addicted to opium. Before his campaigns of 1938 and 1939, while he was still legally married, Muñoz Marín met Inés Mendoza . A teacher, she became his mistress and was fired for complaining about the prohibition against classes in Spanish. They agreed that substituting "one language for another
2310-632: A majority of the population on the island. In 1791, the slaves in Saint-Domingue ( Haiti ), revolted against their French masters. Many of the French escaped to Puerto Rico via what is now the Dominican Republic and settled in the west coast of the island, especially in Mayagüez . Some Puerto Ricans are of British heritage, most notably Scottish people and English people who came to reside there in
2464-527: A marked change in the way Puerto Ricans view themselves. This may show that Puerto Ricans are now more open to embracing all sides of their mixed-race heritage and do not view themselves as part of the standard race dynamic in the United States hence the high number of people identifying as "some other race", a similar phenomenon went on in the mainland United States with the overall US Hispanic/Latino population. Most have significant ancestry from two or more of
2618-479: A meeting between him and Eleanor Roosevelt . Wanting her to see Puerto Rico's problems personally, he persuaded her to visit the main island. In August 1932, Muñoz Marín received Eleanor Roosevelt in Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza before traveling to El Fanguito , a poor sector that had suffered much damage in the hurricane. When photos of her visit were published, former American governors and
2772-456: A minimum wage, initiatives to provide food and water, cooperatives to work with agriculture, and the creation of more industrial alternatives. Muñoz Marín concentrated his political campaigning in the rural areas of Puerto Rico. He attacked the then common practice of paying off rural farm workers to influence their vote, insisting that they "lend" their vote for only one election. The party's first rally attracted solid participation, which surprised
2926-401: A non-invasive mechanical procedure used to break down the stones, may also be used. Known as cholecystitis , inflammation of the gallbladder is commonly caused by obstruction of the duct with gallstones, which is known as cholelithiasis . Blocked bile accumulates, and pressure on the gallbladder wall may lead to the release of substances that cause inflammation, such as phospholipase . There
3080-497: A politician to achieve reform. In speeches, he discussed ways to provide more land, hospitals, food and schools to the general public. On March 13, 1932, Muñoz Marín was nominated by the party for the post of senator. Although the party did not win a majority in the 1932 elections, Muñoz Marín received enough votes to gain a position in the Puerto Rican Senate . Shortly after, Rudy Black, a reporter for La Democracia , arranged
3234-400: A product of hemoglobin breakdown. These may cause significant pain, particularly in the upper-right corner of the abdomen, and are often treated with removal of the gallbladder (called a cholecystectomy ). Cholecystitis , inflammation of the gallbladder, has a wide range of causes, including result from the impaction of gallstones, infection, and autoimmune disease. The human gallbladder is
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#17328558988503388-601: A proposal of autonomy for Puerto Rico, which was accepted. His father was elected to serve as Secretary of State of Puerto Rico and Chief of the Cabinet for the Government of Puerto Rico. On October 18, 1898, Puerto Rico was taken by the United States following Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American War . Luis's father assisted in establishing an insular police force, but opposed the military colonial government established by
3542-521: A result of his opposition to the bill and disagreement with Antonio R. Barceló, Muñoz Marín was expelled from the Liberal Party. Muñoz Marín's expulsion severely affected his public image. He created a group named Acción Social Independentista ( ASI ) ("Pro-Independence Social Action") which later became the Partido Liberal Neto, Auténtico y Completo . This organization served as opposition to
3696-525: A shift to an industrial economy. During the 1950s, labor-intensive light industries were developed on the island, such as textiles; manufacturing later gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Taught in Spanish, jíbaros were trained to work in jobs being promoted by the government. Muñoz Marín backed legislation to limit the amount of land a company could own. His development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. A rural agricultural society
3850-417: A significant minority. Also present in today's Puerto Ricans are traces (about 10-15%) of the aboriginal Taíno natives that inhabited the island at the time European colonizers arrived in 1493. Recent studies in population genetics have concluded that Puerto Rican gene pool is on average predominantly European, with a significant Sub-Saharan African, North African Guanche , and Indigenous American substrate,
4004-490: A square deal and opened positions to them, especially in the teaching profession and the higher ranks of the police force, from which they were conventionally debarred." During the early stages of World War II, many thousands of Puerto Ricans were drafted to serve in the United States Army . This eased problems of overpopulation in the main island. Muñoz Marín promoted the construction of public housing projects to resolve
4158-419: A thin layer of connective tissue, the lamina propria . The mucosa is curved and collected into tiny outpouchings called rugae . A muscular layer sits beneath the mucosa. This is formed by smooth muscle , with fibres that lie in longitudinal, oblique and transverse directions, and are not arranged in separate layers. The muscle fibres here contract to expel bile from the gallbladder. A distinctive feature of
4312-767: A total of 3,644,515 (91.9%) of the population being born in Puerto Rico and 201,310 (5.1%) born in the United States. The total population born outside Puerto Rico is 322,773 (8.1%). Of the 108,262 who were foreign born outside the United States (2.7% of Puerto Ricans), 92.9% were born in Latin America, 3.8% in Europe, 2.7% in Asia, 0.2% in Northern America , and 0.1% in Africa and Oceania each. The populations during Spanish rule of Puerto Rico were: The original inhabitants of Puerto Rico are
4466-460: Is a bile leak, for example after surgery for removing the gallbladder ( laparoscopic cholecystectomy ), with an incidence of 0.3–2%. Other causes are biliary surgery, liver biopsy , abdominal trauma , and, rarely, spontaneous perforation. Cancer of the gallbladder is uncommon and mostly occurs in later life. When cancer occurs, it is mostly of the glands lining the surface of the gallbladder ( adenocarcinoma ). Gallstones are thought to be linked to
4620-443: Is a procedure in which the gallbladder is removed. It may be removed because of recurrent gallstones and is considered an elective procedure . A cholecystectomy may be an open procedure, or a laparoscopic one. In the surgery, the gallbladder is removed from the neck to the fundus, and so bile will drain directly from the liver into the biliary tree . About 30 percent of patients may experience some degree of indigestion following
4774-470: Is also the risk of bacterial infection. An inflamed gallbladder is likely to cause sharp and localised pain, fever, and tenderness in the upper, right corner of the abdomen, and may have a positive Murphy's sign . Cholecystitis is often managed with rest and antibiotics, particularly cephalosporins and, in severe cases, metronidazole . Additionally the gallbladder may need to be removed surgically if inflammation has progressed far enough. A cholecystectomy
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4928-423: Is another form of imaging that may be used to examine the gallbladder and surrounding organs. Other imaging options include MRCP ( magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography ), ERCP and percutaneous or intraoperative cholangiography . A cholescintigraphy scan is a nuclear imaging procedure used to assess the condition of the gallbladder. Most vertebrates have gallbladders, but the form and arrangement of
5082-575: Is associated with bold, belligerent behaviour, whereas to have "bile" is associated with sourness. In the Chinese medicine , the gallbladder ( 膽 ) is associated with the Wuxing element of wood, in excess its emotion is belligerence and in deficiency cowardice and judgement, in the Chinese language it is related to a myriad of idioms , including using terms such as "a body completely [of] gall" ( 渾身是膽 ) to describe
5236-785: Is between 9 and 10 million worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing in Puerto Rico and mainland United States . The culture held in common by most Puerto Ricans is referred to as a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Spain , and more specifically Andalusia and the Canary Islands . Puerto Rico has also received immigration from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia as well as from other European countries such as France, Ireland, Italy and Germany. Puerto Rico has also been influenced by African culture , with many Puerto Ricans partially descended from Africans, though Afro-Puerto Ricans of unmixed African descent are only
5390-614: Is currently prohibited. Even with the Puerto Ricans' vote for statehood, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution . Gallbladder In vertebrates , the gallbladder , also known as the cholecyst , is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it
5544-401: Is even a Francosign language like ASL. Indeed, there is a hesitancy amongst Puerto Rican Deaf to even mention LSPR after heavy handed oralist education of English, Spanish, and Signed English . Today, there is much contact between ASL, PRSL, and Signed Spanish . The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from
5698-413: Is found beneath the junction of hepatic segments IVB and V. The cystic duct unites with the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct . At the junction of the neck of the gallbladder and the cystic duct, there is an out-pouching of the gallbladder wall forming a mucosal fold known as " Hartmann 's pouch". Lymphatic drainage of the gallbladder follows the cystic node, which is located between
5852-493: Is inflammation linked to the biliary tree or gallbladder, and whether this is associated with inflammation of the liver, and a lipase or amylase may be elevated if there is pancreatitis . Bilirubin may rise when there is obstruction of the flow of bile. A CA 19-9 level may be taken to investigate for cholangiocarcinoma. An ultrasound is often the first medical imaging test performed when gallbladder disease such as gallstones are suspected. An abdominal X-ray or CT scan
6006-545: Is internationally recognized by Spain, which considers Puerto Rico to be an Ibero-American nation. Therefore, Puerto Rican citizens have the ability to apply for Spanish citizenship after only two years residency in Spain (instead of the standard 10 years). Puerto Rican voters, despite not voting in the 2024 election for the President on the island, nevertheless were a surprisingly important political "hot potato" for both parties, due to
6160-409: Is more during laparoscopic cholecystectomy than during open cholecystectomy. Biliary injury may lead to several complications and may even cause death if not diagnosed in time and managed properly. Ideally biliary injury should be managed at a center with facilities and expertise in endoscopy , radiology and surgery. Biloma is collection of bile within the abdominal cavity . It happens when there
6314-470: Is one of the most important components in which many villages were founded from these immigrants, which started from 1493 to 1890 and beyond. Many Spaniards, especially Canarians, chose Puerto Rico because of its Hispanic ties and relative proximity in comparison with other former Spanish colonies. They searched for security and stability in an environment similar to that of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico
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6468-549: Is released into the small intestine . In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver , although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct , and stores it. The bile is then released via the common bile duct into the duodenum , where the bile helps in the digestion of fats . The gallbladder can be affected by gallstones , formed by material that cannot be dissolved – usually cholesterol or bilirubin ,
6622-546: Is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner , who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on congressional committee . Puerto Ricans residing in
6776-584: Is to diminish that country's capacity to be happy". Muñoz Marín asked Mendoza to "stay with him all his life." In 1940, a month after his election as President of the Senate in Puerto Rico, Muñoz Marín and Mendoza had a daughter, Victoria , named to commemorate his success. He and Mendoza officially married in 1946, and they had a second daughter, Viviana. In the 1980s, their daughter Victoria Muñoz Mendoza became active in Puerto Rican politics. In 1992, she became
6930-520: Is used in traditional Chinese medicine ; bile bears are kept alive in captivity while their bile is extracted, in an industry characterized by animal cruelty . Depictions of the gallbladder and biliary tree are found in Babylonian models found from 2000 BCE, and in ancient Etruscan model from 200 BCE, with models associated with divine worship. Diseases of the gallbladder are known to have existed in humans since antiquity, with gallstones found in
7084-429: The Canary Islands , this is also true for many Dominicans and Cubans. Canarians are of partial Guanche ancestry, a North African Berber ethnic group who were the original inhabitants before Spanish conquest. This means that by extension, many Puerto Ricans have minuscule amounts of North African blood through the indigenous Guanches of the Canary Islands. In the 1899 census , taken the year Spain ceded Puerto Rico to
7238-593: The Great Famine of the 1840s , immigrated to Puerto Rico. They were followed by smaller waves from other European countries and China. During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, when thousands of Cuban Jews fled Cuba after Fidel Castro came to power. The native Taino population began to dwindle, with
7392-643: The National Geographic Genographic Project , "the average Puerto Rican individual carries 12% Native American, 65% West Eurasian (Mediterranean, Northern European and/or Middle Eastern) and 20% Sub-Saharan African DNA." In genetic terms, even many of those of pure Spanish origin would have North and, in some cases, West African ancestry brought from founder populations, particularly in the Canary Islands. Along with European, West African, and Taino, many Puerto Ricans have small amounts of North African blood due to settlers from Canary Islands ,
7546-494: The Renaissance , perhaps because of the low incidence of gallstones in earlier times owing to a diet with more cereals and vegetables and less meat. Anthonius Benevinius in 1506 was the first to draw a connection between symptoms and the presence of gallstones. Ludwig Georg Courvoisier , after examining a number of cases in 1890 that gave rise to the eponymous Courvoisier's law , stated that in an enlarged, nontender gallbladder,
7700-629: The Taíno , who called the island Borikén or Borinquen ; however, as in other parts of the Americas, the native people soon diminished in number after the arrival of Spanish settlers. Besides miscegenation , the negative impact on the numbers of Amerindian people, especially in Puerto Rico, was almost entirely the result of Old World diseases that the Amerindians had no natural/bodily defenses against, including measles , chicken pox , mumps , influenza , and even
7854-704: The University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras in 1935 (the Río Piedras massacre ) and again at Ponce in 1937, the US Senator Millard Tydings from Maryland supported a bill in 1936 to give independence to Puerto Rico. (He had co-sponsored the Tydings–McDuffie Act , which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10-year transition under a limited autonomy.) All the Puerto Rican parties supported
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#17328558988508008-765: The Vietnam War , the Gulf War , the War in Afghanistan , and the Iraq War . Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico. The citizenship
8162-658: The common cold . In fact, it was estimated that the majority of all the Amerindian inhabitants of the New World died out due to contact and contamination with those Old World diseases, while those that survived were further reduced through deaths by warfare with Spanish colonizers and settlers. Thousands of Spanish settlers also immigrated to Puerto Rico from the Canary Islands during the 18th and 19th centuries, so many so that whole Puerto Rican villages and towns were founded by Canarian immigrants, and their descendants would later form
8316-418: The cystic duct . The gallbladder is divided into three sections: the fundus , body , and neck . The fundus is the rounded base, angled so that it faces the abdominal wall . The body lies in a depression in the surface of the lower liver. The neck tapers and is continuous with the cystic duct , part of the biliary tree . The gallbladder fossa, against which the fundus and body of the gallbladder lie,
8470-401: The hepatic diverticulum , which will go on to become the biliary tree . Just below this is a second outpouching, known as the cystic diverticulum , that will eventually develop into the gallbladder. The main functions of the gallbladder are to store and concentrate bile , also called gall, needed for the digestion of fats in food. Produced by the liver, bile flows through small vessels into
8624-410: The peritoneum . The serosa contains blood vessels and lymphatics. The surfaces in contact with the liver are covered in connective tissue . The gallbladder varies in size, shape, and position among different people. Rarely, two or even three gallbladders may coexist, either as separate bladders draining into the cystic duct, or sharing a common branch that drains into the cystic duct. Additionally,
8778-487: The 17th and 18th centuries. When Spain revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 with the intention of attracting non-Spanish Europeans to settle in the island, thousands of Corsicans (though the island was French since 1768 the population spoke an Italian dialect similar to Tuscan Italian) during the 19th century immigrated to Puerto Rico, along with German immigrants as well as Irish immigrants who were affected by
8932-505: The 1940s, the Puerto Rican economy was small and undeveloped, it relied heavily on agriculture. At this time, Puerto Rican migration waves were mainly to Dominican Republic, the Virgin Islands, and US cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Miami, New Orleans, and most importantly metropolitan area surrounding New York City and North Jersey. Over 5,000 Puerto Ricans migrated to Hawaii from 1900 to 1901. Puerto Rican migration to
9086-555: The 50 States and the US territory of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican populations in other countries are very small, not large enough to have dominance over certain neighborhoods and cities like in Florida and the US Northeast. Unsurprisingly, Puerto Rico's neighbors have the biggest Puerto Rican communities outside Puerto Rico and the US mainland, to the west Dominican Republic with as high as 20,000 Puerto Ricans according to some sources, and to
9240-756: The Africans who were brought to Puerto Rico did so as a result of the slave trade taking place from many groups in the African continent, but particularly the West Africans , the Yoruba , the Igbo , and the Kongo people . Indigenous people make up the third largest racial identity among Puerto Ricans, comprising 0.5% of the population. Although this self-identification may be ethno-political in nature since unmixed Tainos no longer exist as
9394-509: The Coalition, which by this time had weakened, and he worked to establish a new independence movement. Barceló adopted several of Muñoz Marín's ideas of social and economic reforms and autonomy, using them to form the ideology of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico . Muñoz Marín joined the Liberal Party and led La Democracia , which had become the party's official newspaper. He had decided to become
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#17328558988509548-683: The District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party , while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. representatives or senators . However, Puerto Rico
9702-619: The Liberal Party, which was led by Barceló. Along with many liberal democratic administrators from the New Deal relief organization known as the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration (PRRA), in 1938, Muñoz Marín helped create the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico ( Partido Popular Democratico , or PPD). The party committed to helping the jíbaros , regardless of their political beliefs, by promoting
9856-521: The Nationalists, including Albizu Campos. Subsequently, the Muñoz Marín administration used law 53, known as Ley de Mordaza (lit. "the gag law") to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process, including pro-independence supporters who were not involved in the uprisings. The inauguration acts for the establishment of the Estado Libre Associado took place on July 25, 1952. Security for
10010-479: The Northeast region and in Florida, in the metropolitan areas of New York , Orlando , Philadelphia , Miami , Chicago , Tampa , and Boston , among others. Though, over 95% of Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico, live in the United States (US states), there is a significant and growing number of Puerto Ricans, mainly from Puerto Rico itself but to a lesser degree stateside Puerto Ricans as well, living outside
10164-636: The Puerto Rican House, the law was repressive and in direct violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , which guarantees freedom of speech . Figueroa pointed out that every Puerto Rican was born with full citizenship, and full U.S. constitutional protections. Muñoz Marín used Law 53 to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process – including members of other political parties , and people who did not vote for him. Muñoz Marín officially took office on January 2, 1949. He held
10318-441: The Puerto Rican deaf population to be between 8,000 and 40,000. Due to ongoing colonization from the US mainland, the larger American Sign Language (ASL) is supplanting the local Puerto Rican Sign Language (PRSL, also known as LSPR: Lenguaje de Señas Puertorriqueño ). Although assumed to be a dialect or variant of ASL, it is currently unknown the degree of mutual intelligibility between Puerto Rican Sign Language nor whether it
10472-420: The Puerto Rican expressed his/her intentions to remain a Spanish subject. Since 1948, it was decided by Congress that all Puerto Ricans, whether born within the United States or in Puerto Rico, were naturally born United States citizens . Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and
10626-486: The Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty". Puerto Rico has held four referendums to determine whether to retain its status as a territory or to switch to some other status such as statehood. The fourth, the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result
10780-517: The Puerto Rican populations abroad may be slightly larger as some may be stateside-born and counted as "American" rather than "Puerto Rican" on local government statistics on immigrants. Spanish and English are the official languages of the entire Commonwealth. A 1902 English-only language law was abolished on April 5, 1991. Then on January 28, 1993, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico approved Law Number 1 again making Spanish and English
10934-429: The Spanish colonial period, there was significant migration from Puerto Rico to Santo Domingo (DR), Cuba, the Virgin Islands, and Venezuela, and vice versa, because migration between neighboring colonies especially under the same European power, was common. Nearly all Puerto Ricans who migrated to these areas during these times, assimilated and intermixed with the local populations. In the early days of US rule, from 1900 to
11088-521: The Spanish province where most Puerto Ricans draw their European ancestry from, being of partial North African blood. Very few self-identified Black Puerto Ricans are of unmixed African ancestry, while a genetically unmixed Amerindian population in Puerto Rico is technically extinct despite a minuscule segment of self-identified Amerindian Puerto Ricans due to a minor Amerindian component in their ancestral mixture. Research data shows that 60% of Puerto Ricans carry maternal lineages of Native American origin and
11242-546: The Spanish spoken elsewhere. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in the present-day Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in
11396-475: The U.S. Census Bureau listed the following groups to constitute "Asian": Asian Indian, Bangladeshi , Bhutanese, Cambodian, Chinese , Filipino, Hmong , Indonesian, Japanese , Korean, Laotian, Malaysian , Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Taiwanese, Thai, Vietnamese , and Other Asian. Though, the largest groups come from China and India . These groups represented 0.1% of the population. People of "Some other race alone" or "Two or more races" constituted 75.3% of
11550-467: The U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states. As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico may enlist in the U.S. military and have been included in the compulsory draft when it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have fully participated in all U.S. wars and military conflicts since 1898, including World War I , World War II , the Korean War ,
11704-585: The US Senate. On December 6, 1962, Muñoz Marín was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President John F. Kennedy . By 1964, Muñoz Marín had been governor for sixteen years. A group of younger members of the Popular Democratic Party felt that he should retire. They suggested that he resign, and presented a proposal for term limits — two terms for elected officials. The group named themselves Los veinte y dos ("The twenty-twos") and began running
11858-417: The US northeast started as early as the 1890s; however, it was a very, very small flow at the time. During the 1940s, Puerto Rican desire for independence slowly started to decline while desire for statehood and dependence on the US started rise, due to this more Puerto Ricans started to look at the US more favorably and take full advantage of their US citizenship, huge flows of Puerto Ricans started to arrive in
12012-650: The Union, and the states with the largest populations of Puerto Ricans relative to the national population of Puerto Ricans in the United States at large are the states of New York , Florida , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania , with large populations also in Massachusetts , Connecticut , California , Illinois , and Texas . For 2009, the American Community Survey estimates give a total of 3,859,026 Puerto Ricans classified as "Native" Puerto Ricans. It also gives
12166-655: The United States as a result of the passage of the Jones–Shafroth Act of 1917. Since this law was the result of Congressional legislation, and not the result of an amendment to the United States Constitution , the current U.S. citizenship of Puerto Ricans can be revoked by Congress, as they are statutory citizens , not 14th Amendment citizens . The Jones Act established that Puerto Ricans born prior to 1899 were considered naturalized citizens of Puerto Rico, and anyone born after 1898 were U.S. citizens, unless
12320-735: The United States following its invasion and annexation in the Spanish–American War , 61.8% of the people were identified as White . In the 2020 United States Census the total of Puerto Ricans that self-identified as White was 17.1% or 560,592 out of the 3,285,874 people living in Puerto Rico, down from 75.8% in the 2010 Census, reflecting a change in perceptions of race in Puerto Rico. For every United States census until 2010, most Puerto Ricans self identified as "white". The European ancestry of Puerto Ricans comes primarily from one source: Spaniards (including Canarians , Catalans , Castilians , Galicians , Asturians , Andalusians , and Basques ). The Canarian cultural influence in Puerto Rico
12474-488: The United States mainland. In 1943 Puerto Rico would pass a Civil Rights Act would ended a great deal of race-related discrimination in Puerto Rico. In 1945, Eric Williams would acknowledge the progress in civil rights in Puerto Rico at the time, conceding that despite some issues related to class discrimination, "The Negro enjoys equality with the white man politically as well as legally," and that even opponents of Muñoz Marín "agree that he and his party have given Negroes
12628-462: The United States, and was perceived as an effort to suppress opposition to the PPD and the independence movement. Under this law it became a crime to own or display a Puerto Rican flag anywhere, even in one's own home. It also became a crime to speak against the U.S. government ; to speak in favor of Puerto Rican independence; to print, publish , sell or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy
12782-439: The United States, particularly industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest, coinciding with a strong decline in Puerto Ricans migrating to other countries and even other areas in the US like Baltimore, New Orleans, and Hawaii. From 1940 to 1960, the stateside Puerto Rican population rose from 69,967 to 892,513. In the modern day, there are about 5.9 million Puerto Ricans in the US mainland. Large concentrations can be found in
12936-571: The United States. He resigned from office on February 4, 1899, but was later elected to the House of Delegates of Puerto Rico. One of Muñoz Marín's paternal great-grandfathers, Luis Muñoz Iglesias, was born on October 12, 1797, in Palencia , Spain. At age 14, he had joined the Spanish Army and battled Napoleon Bonaparte's French Army in the Peninsular War . Afterward he decided to make his career in
13090-402: The area to be held by large sugarcane interests. During the first four decades of the 20th century, Puerto Rico's dominant economic commodity had been sugarcane by-products. Operation Bootstrap encouraged investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants, offering them local and federal tax concessions, while maintaining access to American markets free of import duties. The program facilitated
13244-583: The army, and was awarded decorations after fighting against Simón Bolívar during the Admirable Campaign of independence in Latin America. Once the conflict was over, he traveled to Puerto Rico along with his commanding officer, Miguel de la Torre . He subsequently settled in a farm in Cidra and married María Escolástica Barrios. One of his great-grandmothers was Rosa Solá, a woman held in slavery by his great grandfather, Vicente Marín. In 1901 when Muñoz Marín
13398-408: The arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, through disease and intermarriage. Many Spaniard men took Taino and West African wives and in the first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. "By 1530 there were 14 native women married to Spaniards, not to mention Spaniards with concubines." Under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of
13552-450: The bile ducts may vary considerably. In many species, for example, there are several separate ducts running to the intestine, rather than the single common bile duct found in humans. Several species of mammals (including horses , deer , rats , and laminoids ), several species of birds (such as pigeons and some psittacine species), lampreys and all invertebrates do not have a gallbladder. The bile from several species of bears
13706-417: The bile is saturated , usually with either cholesterol or bilirubin . Most gallstones do not cause symptoms, with stones either remaining in the gallbladder or passed along the biliary system . When symptoms occur, severe "colicky" pain in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen is often felt. If the stone blocks the gallbladder , inflammation known as cholecystitis may result. If the stone lodges in
13860-436: The biliary system, jaundice may occur; if the stone blocks the pancreatic duct , pancreatitis may occur. Gallstones are diagnosed using ultrasound . When a symptomatic gallstone occurs, it is often managed by waiting for it to be passed naturally. Given the likelihood of recurrent gallstones, surgery to remove the gallbladder is often considered. Some medication, such as ursodeoxycholic acid , may be used; lithotripsy ,
14014-419: The bill, but Muñoz Marín opposed it. Tydings did not gain passage of the bill. Muñoz Marín criticized the bill for what he said would be adverse effects on the island's economy. He compared it to a principle known as Ley de Fuga (Law of flight). This was the term for a police officer arresting a man, releasing him, and shooting him in the back while the policeman retreated, claiming the suspect had "fled." As
14168-468: The cause of jaundice is unlikely to be gallstones. The first surgical removal of a gallstone (cholecystolithotomy) was in 1676 by physician Joenisius, who removed the stones from a spontaneously occurring biliary fistula . Stough Hobbs in 1867 performed the first recorded cholecystotomy , although such an operation was in fact described earlier by French surgeon Jean Louis Petit in the mid eighteenth century. German surgeon Carl Langenbuch performed
14322-407: The contexts of foods, music or dances. There are many religious beliefs represented in the island. Religious breakdown in Puerto Rico (as of 2006) is given in the table on the right. The majority of Puerto Ricans in the island are Christians . Spiritists have a large secondary following. Muslims , Hindus , Jews , and Buddhists all have a small presence as well. Roman Catholicism has been
14476-481: The country's economy — and his own personal finances — after the stock market crash . Deciding that exploiting his father's name in Puerto Rican politics was better than starving in Greenwich Village, he borrowed money from a group of friends and returned to the island. Upon arriving, he discovered that Hurricane San Felipe Segundo had destroyed most of the sugar crops where the jíbaros worked, leaving
14630-431: The cystic duct and the common hepatic duct. Lymphatics from the lower part of the organ drain into lower hepatic lymph nodes . All the lymph finally drains into celiac lymph nodes . The gallbladder wall is composed of a number of layers. The innermost surface of the gallbladder wall is lined by a single layer of columnar cells with a brush border of microvilli , very similar to intestinal absorptive cells. Underneath
14784-561: The drafting of the Constitution of Puerto Rico . It was passed by 82% of the people of Puerto Rico, and approved by the United States Congress in 1952. Supporters of independence left the PPD and founded the Puerto Rican Independence Party soon after. The Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico , led by Albizu Campos, also supported full independence and had abandoned the electoral process after low support. On October 30, 1950,
14938-505: The early 20th century, the majority of the people of Puerto Rico feel pride in their Puerto Rican nationality, regardless of the individual's particular racial, ethnic, political, or economic background. Many Puerto Ricans are consciously aware of the rich contribution of all cultures represented on the island. This diversity can be seen in the everyday lifestyle of many Puerto Ricans such as the profound Latin, African, and Taíno influences regarding food, music, dance, and architecture. During
15092-556: The east US Virgin Islands with 7,759, 8.9% of the territory's population, second highest percentage of any US state or territory, after Puerto Rico (95.5%) and before Connecticut (8.0%). There are small numbers of Puerto Ricans in other countries like Canada, Spain, Mexico, United Kingdom, and other countries in Europe and the Caribbean/Latin America. Due to Puerto Rico being a US territory, the vast majority of Puerto Ricans leaving
15246-405: The east side, and the levels of Taino ancestry (which, according to some research, ranges from about 5%-35%) generally highest in the southwest of the island. A study of a sample of 96 healthy self-identified White Puerto Ricans and self-identified Black Puerto Ricans in the U.S. showed that, although all carried a contribution from all 3 ancestral populations (European, African, and Amerindian),
15400-475: The epithelium is an underlying lamina propria , a muscular layer , an outer perimuscular layer and serosa . Unlike elsewhere in the intestinal tract, the gallbladder does not have a muscularis mucosae , and the muscular fibres are not arranged in distinct layers. The mucosa , the inner portion of the gallbladder wall, consists of a lining of a single layer of columnar cells, with cells possessing small hair-like attachments called microvilli . This sits on
15554-517: The event was tightened to avoid any incident, and invitations were issued. Muñoz Marín feared that the new status could affect the Puerto Rican culture or " Americanize " the island's language . The government began promoting cultural activities, founding the Pablo Casals Festival, Music Conservatory, and Puerto Rico's Institute of Culture. During the decade of the 1950s, most jíbaros pursued work in factories instead of agriculture, to avoid
15708-426: The first cholecystectomy in 1882 for a sufferer of cholelithiasis. Before this, surgery had focused on creating a fistula for drainage of gallstones. Langenbuch reasoned that given several other species of mammal have no gallbladder, humans could survive without one. The debate whether surgical removal of the gallbladder or simply gallstones was preferred was settled in the 1920s, with the consensus that removal of
15862-471: The first woman to run as a candidate for the governorship of Puerto Rico. In 1920, Muñoz Marín was selected to deliver a check to Santiago Iglesias , the president of the Socialist Party of Puerto Rico . Excited about the prospect of meeting him, they moved to Puerto Rico, where the couple's first daughter, Munita, was born. Upon arriving, he noticed that some of the landowners were paying the jíbaros ,
16016-513: The following years, the family frequently traveled between both locations. His father founded the Unionist Party in Puerto Rico, which won the election in 1904. Following the party's victory, his father was elected as a member of the House of Delegates. Muñoz Marín began his elementary education at William Penn Public School in Santurce , a district of San Juan. Most classes were taught in English,
16170-508: The formation of cancer. Other risk factors include large (>1 cm) gallbladder polyps and having a highly calcified "porcelain" gallbladder . Cancer of the gallbladder can cause attacks of biliary pain, yellowing of the skin ( jaundice ), and weight loss. A large gallbladder may be able to be felt in the abdomen. Liver function tests may be elevated, particularly involving GGT and ALP , with ultrasound and CT scans being considered medical imaging investigations of choice. Cancer of
16324-622: The founding source populations of Spaniards, Africans, and Tainos, although Spanish ancestry is predominant in a majority of the population. Small amounts of Puerto Ricans may have additional ancestries from other parts of the world. Similar to many other Latin American ethnic groups, Puerto Ricans are multi-generationally mixed race, though most are European dominant in ancestry, Puerto Ricans who are "evenly mixed" can accurately be described " Mulatto ", " Quadroon ", or Tri-racial very similar to mixed populations in Cuba and Dominican Republic. According to
16478-416: The fourth week of embryological development, the stomach rotates. The stomach, originally lying in the midline of the embryo, rotates so that its body is on the left. This rotation also affects the part of the gastrointestinal tube immediately below the stomach, which will go on to become the duodenum . By the end of the fourth week, the developing duodenum begins to spout a small outpouching on its right side,
16632-535: The gallbladder appears to be protection against carcinogenesis as indicated by observations that removal of the gallbladder ( cholecystectomy ) increases subsequent cancer risk. For instance, a systematic review and meta analysis of eighteen studies concluded that cholecystecomy has a harmful effect on the risk of right-sided colon cancer. Another recent study reported a significantly increased total cancer risk, including increased risk of several different types of cancer, after cholecystectomy. Gallstones form when
16786-536: The gallbladder is managed by removing the gallbladder, however, as of 2010, the prognosis remains poor. Cancer of the gallbladder may also be found incidentally after surgical removal of the gallbladder, with 1–3% of cancers identified in this way. Gallbladder polyps are mostly benign growths or lesions resembling growths that form in the gallbladder wall, and are only associated with cancer when they are larger in size (>1 cm). Cholesterol polyps, often associated with cholesterolosis ("strawberry gallbladder",
16940-405: The gallbladder is the presence of Rokitansky–Aschoff sinuses , deep outpouchings of the mucosa that can extend through the muscular layer, and which indicate adenomyomatosis . The muscular layer is surrounded by a layer of connective and fat tissue. The outer layer of the fundus of gallbladder, and the surfaces not in contact with the liver, are covered by a thick serosa , which is exposed to
17094-399: The gallbladder may fail to form at all. Gallbladders with two lobes separated by a septum may also exist. These abnormalities are not likely to affect function and are generally asymptomatic. The location of the gallbladder in relation to the liver may also vary, with documented variants including gallbladders found within, above, on the left side of, behind, and detached or suspended from
17248-411: The gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct , eventually draining into the duodenum . The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts , and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin , a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body. The bile that is secreted by
17402-447: The gallbladder was preferred. It was only in the mid and late parts of the twentieth century that medical imaging techniques such as use of contrast medium and CT scans were used to view the gallbladder. The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy performed by Erich Mühe of Germany in 1985, although French surgeons Phillipe Mouret and Francois Dubois are often credited for their operations in 1987 and 1988 respectively. To have "gall"
17556-432: The human embryo has three germ layers and abuts an embryonic yolk sac . During the second week of embryogenesis , as the embryo grows, it begins to surround and envelop portions of this sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract. Sections of this foregut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the esophagus , stomach , and intestines . During
17710-474: The incumbent were outraged to have been overlooked. Following his wife's report, Franklin D. Roosevelt included Puerto Rico in the New Deal program. Muñoz Marín became a popular political figure due to his involvement in the program, which provided for considerable investment of federal funds in Puerto Rico to develop infrastructure and housing. Following the government police massacre of Nationalist protesters at
17864-480: The insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years' imprisonment , a fine of $ 10,000 (US), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa , a member of the Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican Statehood Party) and the only non-member of PPD in
18018-621: The island go to the mainland United States, comprising Puerto Ricans of all income brackets and lifestyles. However, majority of the small number of Puerto Ricans living outside of the United States, including outside of Puerto Rico and other territories, are usually financially well-off and entrepreneurial, owning homes and businesses in the countries they choose to settle in. Statistical counts of Puerto Rican populations in other countries usually only center on ethnic Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico. Non-Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico and later moving to target country usually wouldn't be included in
18172-579: The island, as a result of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, as epitomized by the Regla del Sacar . Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar , which allowed persons of mixed ancestry to pay
18326-401: The island. The US Census Bureau's 2015 update provides the following: 94.1% of adults speak Spanish, 5.8% speak only English and little to no Spanish, 78.3% do not speak English "very well", 15.8% are fully bilingual in both English and Spanish, 0.1% speak other languages. Public school instruction in Puerto Rico is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about
18480-411: The islands, the migration continued. In 1952, three United States senators referred to Muñoz Marin as a dictator when he would not approve "New Industry" tax exemptions for housing construction projects. Muñoz Marin said housing was not a new industry in Puerto Rico and the senators, Olin D. Johnston , Owen Brewster , and John Marshall Butler responded in kind by calling him a dictator on the floor of
18634-544: The large number of Puerto Rican voters on the mainland. Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence" or "decolonization." In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship" existed between the US and Puerto Rico. The UN's Special Committee has referred often to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally,
18788-447: The larger hepatic ducts and ultimately through the cystic duct (parts of the biliary tree ) into the gallbladder, where it is stored. At any one time, 30 to 60 millilitres (1.0 to 2.0 US fl oz) of bile is stored within the gallbladder. When food containing fat enters the digestive tract , it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin,
18942-400: The latter two originating in the aboriginal people of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico's pre-Columbian Taíno inhabitants, respectively. The population of Puerto Ricans and descendants is estimated to be between 8 and 10 million worldwide, with most living on the islands of Puerto Rico and in the United States mainland. Within the United States, Puerto Ricans are present in all states of
19096-404: The law allowed him to arrest any suspected nationalist without cause or due process and so allowed him to squash any potential question to his authority. The Ley de la Mordaza (a gag law ) passed the legislature on May 21, 1948, and was signed into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero . It closely resembled the anti-communist Smith Act passed in
19250-440: The liver and stored in the gallbladder is not the same as the bile that is secreted by the gallbladder. During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3–10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed. A function of
19404-484: The liver. Such variants are very rare: from 1886 to 1998, only 110 cases of left-lying liver, or less than one per year, were reported in scientific literature. An anatomical variation can occur, known as a Phrygian cap , which is an innocuous fold in the fundus, named after its resemblance to the Phrygian cap . The gallbladder develops from an endodermal outpouching of the embryonic gut tube. Early in development,
19558-476: The losses from frequent hurricanes. Many people migrated to New York City during this period for its good industrial jobs. Muñoz Marín said that he "did not agree with" the "continuing situation", and that the "battle for good life, should not have all its emphasis placed on industrialization. Part of it must be placed on agriculture." American critics felt that he encouraged the migration to reduce overpopulation. Despite efforts to provide more work in agriculture on
19712-553: The main Christian denomination among Puerto Ricans since the arrival of the Spanish in the 15th century, but the presence of Protestant , Mormon , Pentecostal , and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under U.S. sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an inter-denominational, multi-religious community. The Afro-Caribbean religion Santería is also practiced. In 1998, a news report stated that "Puerto Rico [was] no longer predominantly Catholic". Pollster Pablo Ramos wrote that
19866-508: The majority unemployed. By the 1930s, Puerto Rico's political scenario had changed; the only party actively asking for independence was the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party . That organization's president, Pedro Albizu Campos , occasionally met with Muñoz Marín. He was impressed by the substance of Albizu's arguments, but their styles to achieve autonomy and social reforms were different. In 1932, Antonio R. Barceló abandoned
20020-540: The mountain-dwelling peasants of Puerto Rico, two dollars in exchange for their votes. He joined the Socialist Party, a decision regarded as a "disaster" by his family. In October 1920, the Socialist Party recruited members of the Republican Party in order to win upcoming elections. Disappointed, Muñoz Marín returned to the mainland, moving to New Jersey with his family. Shortly after, his first son, Luis Muñoz Lee,
20174-520: The mummy of Princess Amenen of Thebes dating to 1500 BCE. Some historians believe the death of Alexander the Great may have been associated with an acute episode of cholecystitis. The existence of the gallbladder has been noted since the 5th century, but it is only relatively recently that the function and the diseases of the gallbladder has been documented, particularly in the last two centuries. The first descriptions of gallstones appear to have been in
20328-451: The official languages of Puerto Rico. All official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population. Puerto Rican Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on
20482-500: The other parties. In 1940, the Popular Democratic Party won a majority in the Senate of Puerto Rico , which was attributed to his campaigning in the rural areas, he first gave a speech in Dorado, Puerto Rico in the balcony of a house owned by electrician Luis Pérez Álvarez, in 1947. Muñoz Marín was elected as the fourth President of the Senate. During his term as President of the Senate, Muñoz
20636-467: The people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... allow
20790-592: The period. Muñoz Marín was instrumental in the suppression of the Nationalist Party and its efforts to gain independence. Luis Muñoz Marín was born on February 18, 1898, at 152 Calle de la Fortaleza in Old San Juan . He was the son of Luis Muñoz Rivera and Amalia Marín Castilla. His father was a poet, publisher, and a politician, responsible for founding two newspapers, El Diario and La Democracia. Days before Luis' birth, his father traveled to Spain to present
20944-432: The population in the 2020 Census . Although the average Puerto Rican is of mixed-race, few actually identified as multiracial ("two or more races") in the 2010 census; only 3.3% did so. They more often identified with their predominant heritage or phenotype. However, in the 2020 census, the amount of Puerto Ricans identifying as multiracial went up to 49.8% and an additional 25.5% identified as "some other race", showing
21098-474: The population was 38% Roman Catholic, 28% Pentecostal, and 18% were members of independent churches. However, an Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of [Puerto Ricans] identify themselves as Catholic". The CIA World Factbook reports that 85% of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15% identify as Protestant and Other. Puerto Ricans became citizens of
21252-465: The post and was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico and the second Puerto Rican to serve in that post. In 1948, the Puerto Rican Senate passed Law 53 , also known as the Gag Law, which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements in the island. Marin was instrumental in the passage of this law as he was in control of the Senate at the time. The passage of
21406-462: The post of Governor for sixteen years, being re-elected again in 1952, 1956 and 1960. In 1957, Muñoz Marín was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree (LL.D.) from Bates College . Having made progress on illiteracy and other social problems, the party began debating how to establish an autonomous government. Muñoz Marín and his officials agreed to adopt a "Free Associated State" structure, which had been proposed by Barceló decades before. In Spanish
21560-436: The procedure, although severe complications are much rarer. About 10 percent of surgeries lead to a chronic condition of postcholecystectomy syndrome . Biliary injury (bile duct injury) is the traumatic damage of the bile ducts . It is most commonly an iatrogenic complication of cholecystectomy — surgical removal of gall bladder , but can also be caused by other operations or by major trauma . The risk of biliary injury
21714-523: The proportions showed significant variation. Depending on individuals, although often correlating with their self-identified race, African ancestry ranged from less than 10% to over 50%, while European ancestry ranged from under 20% to over 80%. Amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race. The majority of the European ancestry in Puerto Ricans comes from southern Spain, more specifically
21868-431: The proposal's name remained unchanged, but in English, it was commonly referred to as a "Commonwealth", to avoid confusion with full statehood. The main goal of the proposal was to provide more autonomy to the island, including executive functions similar to those in states, and to pass a constitution. During his terms as governor, a Constitutional Convention of Puerto Rico , was called. Muñoz Marín participated in that and
22022-464: The typical Puerto Rican has between 5% and 15% Native American admixture. The Puerto Rico of today has come to form some of its own social customs, cultural matrix, historically rooted traditions, and its own unique pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions within the Spanish language , known as Puerto Rican Spanish . Even after the attempted assimilation of Puerto Rico into the United States in
22176-557: Was a leading Southern feminist and a rising writer of Pan-American poetry. They had a daughter and a son together, but often lived apart before separating in 1938. During the 1920s Muñoz Marín spent the majority of his time in Greenwich Village , where he lived apart from his wife and young children. During those years he often asked his wife and mother to send him money, and indulged in a " Bohemian lifestyle " that strained his marriage . Muñoz Marín and his wife Muna Lee underwent
22330-459: Was an advocate of the working class of Puerto Rico. Along with Governor Rexford Tugwell , the last non-Puerto Rican US-appointed Governor, and the republican-socialist coalition which headed the House of Representatives, Muñoz helped advance legislation for agricultural reform, economic recovery, and industrialization. This program became known as Operation Bootstrap . It was coupled with a program of agrarian reform (land redistribution) which limited
22484-399: Was born. In 1923, he returned alone to Puerto Rico, supposedly to publish a book that collected several of his father's previously unpublished works. After collecting $ 5,000 from his father's friends for this alleged "publication" Muñoz Marín spent the money , did not write the book, and quickly left the island . Several years later, after things had quieted down, Antonio R. Barceló , who
22638-593: Was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico . This position is a non-voting delegate to the United States Congress . In 1911, he began his studies at the Georgetown Preparatory School but disliked its strict discipline and failed the tenth grade. In 1915, his father enrolled him at Georgetown University Law Center , but Muñoz Marín was uninterested and wanted to become a poet. In late 1916, Muñoz Marín and his mother were called to Puerto Rico by their friend Eduardo Georgetti, who said Luis' father
22792-573: Was elected as governor. Puerto Ricans Puerto Ricans ( Spanish : Puertorriqueños ), most commonly known as Boricuas , but also occasionally referred to as Borinqueños , Borincanos , or Puertorros , are an ethnic group native to the Caribbean archipelago and island of Puerto Rico , and a nation identified with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico through ancestry , culture , or history . Puerto Ricans are predominately
22946-480: Was held on June 11, 2017, and offered three options: "Statehood", "Independence/Free Association", and "Current Territorial Status." With 23% of registered voters casting ballots, 97% voted for statehood. Benefits of statehood would include an additional $ 10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter
23100-686: Was suffering from an infection spreading from his gallbladder . Muñoz Rivera died on November 15, 1916, when Luis was eighteen. A month later Muñoz Marín and his mother returned to New York; he sold his law books and refused to return to Georgetown. Within one month he published a book titled Borrones , composed of several stories and a one-act play. For several months, he served as the congressional clerk to Félix Córdova Dávila , who succeeded Muñoz Marín's father as Resident Commissioner. On July 1, 1919, Muñoz Marín married Muna Lee , an American writer from Raymond, Mississippi , who had grown up in Oklahoma. Lee
23254-523: Was the most suitable. This began as a temporary exile which became a permanent relocation and the last significant wave of Spanish or European migration to Puerto Rico. Other sources of European populations are Corsicans , French , Italians , Portuguese (especially Azoreans), Greeks , Germans , Irish , Scots , Maltese , Dutch , English , and Danes . In the 2020 United States Census , 7.0% of people self-identified as Black. Africans were brought by Spanish Conquistadors . The vast majority of
23408-407: Was the president of the newly formed Liberal Party, called Muñoz Marín to work on La Democracia . After having problems with some members of the party's Republican faction, due to his support for island autonomy, Muñoz Marín returned to New York. Here he wrote for The American Mercury and The Nation . In 1931, after traveling throughout the United States, Muñoz Marín noticed the instability of
23562-404: Was three years old, a group of statehood supporters broke into his father's El Diario's building and vandalized most of the equipment. Following this incident, the family moved to Caguas . After receiving further threats from the statehood movements, the family moved to New York City. There Muñoz Marín learned English, while his father founded the bilingual newspaper, Puerto Rico Herald . During
23716-487: Was transformed into an industrial working class. Muñoz Marín also launched Operación Serenidad ("Operation Serenity"), a series of projects geared toward promoting education and appreciation of the arts. Civil rights groups and the Catholic Church criticized Operation Bootstrap, for what they saw as government-promoted birth control, encouragement of surgical sterilization, and fostering the migration of Puerto Ricans to
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