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Ludwig Martens

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Ludwig Christian Alexander Karl Martens (or Ludwig Karlovich Martens ; Russian : Людвиг Карлович Мартенс ; 1 January [ O.S. 20 December 1874] 1875 – 19 October 1948) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary, Soviet diplomat and engineer.

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56-705: Ludwig Martens was born on 1 January [ O.S. 20 December 1874] 1875 in Bachmut , in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate in the south of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine ). Ludwig's father, a German -born industrialist named Karl Gustav Adolf Martens, was the owner of a steel mill in Kursk , Russia . There were five sons and two daughters in the family. Two of them, Ludwig and Olga, became professional revolutionaries. In 1893 Martens graduated from

112-457: A commercial bank because after the stock market crash of 1929, investment banking was in some disrepute and commercial lending was perceived to be the more profitable and prestigious business. Also, many within J.P. Morgan believed that a change in the political climate would allow the company to resume its securities businesses but that it would be nearly impossible to reconstitute the bank if it were disassembled. In 1935, after being barred from

168-577: A Kursk Realschule and entered Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology , from which he graduated to become a mechanical engineer . He was fluent in English, German, French, and Russian. While at the State Institute of Technology, Martens became acquainted with Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov . Soon he became a member of their illegal Marxist group League of Struggle for the Emancipation of

224-623: A calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted the start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January,

280-535: A change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate

336-455: A cousin, J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, in 1864. J. Pierpont Morgan & Company traded in government bonds and foreign exchange. It also acted as an agent for Peabody's. Junius, however, considered some of Pierpont's ventures to be highly speculative. Therefore, Pierpont took on Charles H. Dabney (a connection established when Pierpont was sent to the Azores as a child) as a senior partner, and

392-505: A joint venture with Cazenove , which combined Cazenove's investment banking operations with JPMorgan's UK investment banking business. By 2010 JPMorgan bought the company out. J.P. Morgan Cazenove is a marketing name for the U.K. investment banking businesses and EMEA cash equities and equity research businesses of JPMorgan Chase & Co. and its subsidiaries. In 2005, JPMorgan Chase acknowledged that its two predecessor banks had received ownership of thousands of slaves as collateral prior to

448-454: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while

504-707: A loan with the then Irish Emissary to the United States, T.D. Harry Boland , using Russian jewels as security. As the Soviet Bureau's administrative head, commercial attaché , and financial advisor, Julius Hammer, father of Armand Hammer , was assigned to generate support for the Russian Soviet Government Bureau and funded the Bureau by money laundering the proceeds from illegal sales of smuggled diamonds through his company Allied Drug. Under pressure from

560-878: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using

616-526: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January

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672-487: Is now Drexel University . On Junius's death in 1890, Pierpont Morgan took his place at J.S. Morgan and Company. After Drexel's death, Drexel, Morgan reorganized in 1895 and became J.P. Morgan and Company. It financed the formation of the United States Steel Corporation , which took over the business of Andrew Carnegie and others and was the world's first billion-dollar corporation. In 1895, it supplied

728-616: The Bank of England to make J.P. Morgan & Co. the sole underwriter of war bonds for Great Britain and France . The Bank of England became a fiscal agent of J.P. Morgan & Co. and vice versa . Over the course of the war, J.P. Morgan loaned about $ 1.5 billion (approximately $ 45.63 billion in today's dollars) to the Allies to fight against the Germans. The company also invested in the suppliers of war equipment to Britain and France, thus profiting from

784-453: The Civil War . The company apologized for contributing to the "brutal and unjust institution" of slavery. The bank paid $ 5 million in reparations in the form of a scholarship program for Black students. J.P. Morgan, the company itself, is still active as the business and investment banking subsidiary of JPMorgan Chase; Chase Manhattan Bank is still active as the personal banking subsidiary of

840-685: The Lusk Committee , in June 1919 the Bureau was searched by police. In response to charges by the United States Department of Justice , Martens stated in Washington, D.C., on January 10, 1920, that he had done nothing to justify being deported. “My activities in the United States have been entirely friendly and along commercial lines,” he said. After hearings in the United States Senate and

896-536: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on

952-715: The U.S. State Department . On behalf of the Soviet Russian government, Martens was to settle legal claims, disperse funds, and seize the Imperial Russian Embassy and consulates, which were still occupied by the Russian Provisional Government . He established commercial contacts (formally illegal as the USA boycotted Soviet Russia at the time) with more than one thousand American firms including such as Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of J. P. Morgan . He negotiated

1008-684: The United States Department of Labor , Martens was finally deported to Soviet Russia in January 1921. After returning to Russia, Martens became a member of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and the Chairman of Glavmetal (a state organization holding all the metallurgical enterprises of Soviet Russia). On that position Martens started works on developing the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly ,

1064-404: The 19th century, a practice that the author Karen Bellenir considered to reveal a deep emotional resistance to calendar reform. Morgan Guaranty Trust Company J.P. Morgan & Co. is an American financial institution specialized in investment banking , asset management and private banking founded by financier J. P. Morgan in 1871. Through a series of mergers and acquisitions,

1120-532: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that

1176-579: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague

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1232-455: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in

1288-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to

1344-612: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to

1400-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into

1456-544: The Guaranty Trust Company of New York to form the Morgan Guaranty Trust Company. The two banks already had numerous relationships between them and had complementary characteristics as J.P. Morgan brought a prestigious name and high-quality clients and bankers while Guaranty Trust brought a significant amount of capital. Although Guaranty Trust was nearly four times the size of J.P. Morgan at the time of

1512-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in

1568-564: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and

1624-510: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of

1680-603: The United States government with $ 62 million in gold to float a bond issue and restore the treasury surplus of $ 100 million. In 1892, the company began to finance the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad and led it through a series of acquisitions, which made it the dominant railroad transporter in New England . In 1905 a close alliance was formed with the banking house of J. P. Morgan & Co., New York, for joint action in international finance and issue operations, particularly

1736-629: The United States to Russia on a steamship. In March 1919 to break the embargo against Russia, Martens returned to the United States and founded the Russian Soviet Government Bureau at 110 West 40th Street, an informal embassy of Soviet Russia in opposition to the prerevolutionary Imperial Russian Embassy located in Washington, D.C., which the United States still recognized. On March 19, 1919, as de facto Ambassador from Soviet Russia, he presented diplomatic credentials from People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Georgy Chicherin to

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1792-833: The Working Class . In 1896, he was arrested, imprisoned for three years, and in 1899 as he was thought to be a German national was exiled to Germany where he became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany and was forced into the German Army. In 1902 he graduated from the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin ). In 1905, he fled from Germany to Switzerland supporting Lenin as an aide and ensuring that pamphlets and explosives were smuggled into Russia. In 1906, following

1848-532: The absorption of American securities by German investors with the Dresdner Bank . Built in 1914, 23 Wall Street was known as "The Corner" and "The House of Morgan". At noon, on September 16, 1920, an anarchist bomb exploded in front of the bank, killing 38 and injuring 400. Shortly before the bomb went off, an unknown person placed a warning note in a mailbox at the corner of Cedar Street and Broadway. The warning read: "Remember we will not tolerate any longer. Free

1904-486: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and

1960-452: The company is now a subsidiary of JPMorgan Chase , one of the largest banking institutions in the world. The company has been historically referred to as the " House of Morgan " or simply Morgan. For 146 years, until 2000, J.P. Morgan specialized in commercial banking , before a merger with Chase Manhattan Bank led to the business line spinning off under the Chase brand. The origins of

2016-537: The company once again began operating exclusively as J.P. Morgan & Co. Also in the 1980s, J.P. Morgan along with other commercial banks pushed the envelope of product offerings toward investment banking, beginning with the issuance of commercial paper . In 1989, the Federal Reserve permitted J.P. Morgan to be the first commercial bank to underwrite a corporate debt offering. In the 1990s, J.P. Morgan moved quickly to rebuild its investment banking operations and by

2072-444: The company. Following J.P. Morgan & Co.'s formation in 1871, John Pierpont "J. P." Morgan was universally accepted as its highest executive authority (despite holding the mere title of "senior partner"). Upon Morgan's death in 1913, the bank's leadership passed to his son, John Pierpont "Jack" Morgan Jr. Once J.P. Morgan & Co. was incorporated in 1942, Jack emerged as its first chief executive within his capacity as chairman of

2128-533: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar

2184-720: The failure of the 1905 Russian Revolution , Martens emigrated to Great Britain and secretly established a machine gun factory for Lenin. Martens worked as a procurement agent for the Demidov Iron and Steel Works, purchasing machinery for the large industrial works, one of the largest steel works in Russia. In 1914, he declared himself a German alien and left for New York after British intelligence began surveillance of him. In New York as an engineer, he worked for an import-export business and became close to other similarly politically minded persons to spread Lenin's work and ideas. In 1915, with

2240-495: The financing and purchasing activities of the two European governments. During the early 1920s, J.P. Morgan & Co. was active in promoting banks in the southern hemisphere , including the Bank of Central and South America . In 1933, the provisions of the Glass–Steagall Act forced J.P. Morgan & Co. to separate its investment banking from its commercial banking operations. J.P. Morgan & Co. chose to operate as

2296-490: The firm date back to 1854 when Junius S. Morgan joined George Peabody & Co. (which became Peabody, Morgan & Co. ), a London-based banking business headed by George Peabody . Junius took control of the firm, changing its name to J.S. Morgan & Co. in 1864 on Peabody's retirement. Junius's son, J. Pierpont Morgan , first apprenticed at Duncan, Sherman, and Company in New York City, then founded his own firm with

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2352-409: The firm was known first as Dabney, Morgan, and Company (beginning in 1864) and then "Drexel, Morgan & Co." (in 1871). In those firms, Pierpont used his Peabody connection to bring British financial capital together with the rapidly-growing U.S. industrial firms, such as railroads, which needed capital. The Drexel of Drexel, Morgan & Co. was Philadelphia banker Anthony J. Drexel , founder of what

2408-818: The largest iron ore deposits in Russia. In 1924−26 Martens worked as the first Chairman of the Committee on Invention of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy (Комитет по делам Изобретений; the Soviet counterpart of a Western Patent Office ). In 1925 he published a monograph , On the vibration of piston engines . In 1926−36 Martens worked as the Head of the Research and Development Institutes for Diesel Manufacturing (Научно-Исследовательский Институт Дизелестроения) in Leningrad . He

2464-492: The late 1990s would emerge as a top-five player in securities underwriting. By the late 1990s, J.P. Morgan had emerged as a large but not dominant commercial and investment banking franchise with an attractive brand name and a strong presence in debt and equity securities underwriting. Beginning in 1998, J.P. Morgan openly discussed the possibility of a merger, and speculation arose of a pairing with Goldman Sachs , Chase Manhattan Bank , Credit Suisse or Deutsche Bank AG . In

2520-422: The merger in 1959, J.P. Morgan was considered the buyer and nominal survivor and former J.P. Morgan employees were the primary managers of the merged company. Ten years after the merger, Morgan Guaranty established a bank holding company called J.P. Morgan & Co. Incorporated, but continued to operate as Morgan Guaranty through the 1980s before beginning to migrate back to use of the J.P. Morgan brand. In 1988,

2576-745: The onset of World War I , the Kursk steel mill owned by Martens' family was confiscated by the Russian government because the Martens family were considered German nationals. In 1916 Martens emigrated to the United States where he worked as a vice president of the engineering firm Weinberg & Posner ( New York City ). In 1917, after the February Revolution , Martens – together with Leon Trotsky and 278 other Russian Social Democrats – returned from

2632-452: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with

2688-499: The political prisoners or it will be sure death for all of you. American Anarchists Fighters." While theories abound about who was behind the Wall Street bombing and why they did it, after twenty years of investigation the FBI rendered the file inactive in 1940 without ever finding the perpetrators. In August 1914, Henry P. Davison , a Morgan partner, traveled to London and made a deal with

2744-428: The previous decade, Chase Manhattan had emerged as one of the largest and fastest-growing commercial banks in the United States through a series of mergers. In 2000, it merged with J.P. Morgan to form JPMorgan Chase & Co. The combined JPMorgan Chase offered investment banking , commercial banking , retail banking , asset management , private banking and private equity businesses. In 2004, JPMorgan began

2800-459: The securities business for over a year, the heads of J.P. Morgan made the decision to spin off its investment banking operations. Two J.P. Morgan partners, Henry S. Morgan (son of Jack Morgan and grandson of J. Pierpont Morgan ) and Harold Stanley , founded Morgan Stanley on September 16, 1935, with $ 6.6 million of nonvoting preferred stock from J.P. Morgan partners. At the beginning, Morgan Stanley 's headquarters were at 2 Wall Street, just down

2856-400: The street from J.P. Morgan, and Morgan Stanley bankers routinely used 23 Wall Street in closing transactions. In the years following the spin-off of Morgan Stanley , the securities business proved robust, while the parent firm, which was incorporated in 1940, was less profitable. By the 1950s, J.P. Morgan was only a mid-sized bank. To bolster its position, in 1959, J.P. Morgan merged with

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2912-474: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar

2968-799: Was buried in Novodevichy Cemetery . During World War II the son of Ludwig Martens, Wilhelm Ludvigovich (Willy) Martens, was the head of the Free Germany committee intended to organize German POWs to fight alongside the Soviets against Axis troops. The committee was organized in Krasnogorsk in 1943. Later Wilhelm Martens worked as a Soviet intelligence officer. [REDACTED] Media related to Ludwig Martens at Wikimedia Commons Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after

3024-587: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from

3080-496: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to

3136-806: Was the author of the N-2 diesel (also known as the Martens Engine) intended as an aviation engine. The novel element of the diesel was that the 12-cylinder piston engine was aspired by a 6-cylinder piston air compressor. The diesel was tested in 1932. In 1927−41 he was the Chief Editor of the Technical Encyclopedia . In 1933 Martens wrote a letter to OGPU in support of the arrested Pavel Florensky , he also took care of Florensky's sons, Vasily and Kirill. Martens retired in 1941. He died in Moscow on 19 October 1948 and

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