Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen , Norway, during the time of the Dano–Norwegian dual monarchy . He was influenced by Humanism , the Enlightenment and the Baroque . Holberg is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature . He was also a prominent Neo-Latin author, known across Europe for his writing. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the Lille Grønnegade Theatre in Copenhagen . Holberg's works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936.
61-601: Holberg was the youngest of six brothers. His father, Christian Nielsen Holberg , died before Ludvig was one year old. He was educated in Copenhagen , and was a teacher at the University of Copenhagen for many years. At the same time, he started his successful career as an author, writing the first of a series of comedies. He began to study theology at the University of Copenhagen and later taught himself law, history and language. He
122-409: A bacterium is a form of experimentation while studying planetary orbits through a telescope belongs to mere observation. In these cases, the mutated DNA was actively produced by the biologist while the planetary orbits are independent of the astronomer observing them. Applied to the history of science, it is sometimes held that ancient science is mainly observational while the emphasis on experimentation
183-478: A belief. So experience may be needed to acquire the relevant concepts in the example above, but once these concepts are possessed, no further experience providing empirical evidence is needed to know that the proposition is true, which is why it is considered to be justified a priori . In its strictest sense, empiricism is the view that all knowledge is based on experience or that all epistemic justification arises from empirical evidence. This stands in contrast to
244-551: A consequence he gave up his comedies switching to philosophical and historical writings in 1731. Holberg's only novel, the satirical science-fiction / fantasy Niels Klim's Underground Travels was originally published in Latin in 1741 as Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum . In Paris, Holberg met the Danish-born French scientist Jacob Winsløw , who was Catholic . Winsløw tried to convert Holberg, without success. Holberg enjoyed
305-606: A general definition of "intervention" applying to all cases, which is why it is sometimes outright rejected. Empirical evidence is required for a hypothesis to gain acceptance in the scientific community . Normally, this validation is achieved by the scientific method of forming a hypothesis, experimental design , peer review , reproduction of results , conference presentation, and journal publication . This requires rigorous communication of hypothesis (usually expressed in mathematics), experimental constraints and controls (expressed in terms of standard experimental apparatus), and
366-1005: A longer period of time in Oxford , England (1706–1708), which was rare during that time as intellectual life was centered in continental Europe. He was not formally admitted to Oxford University , but spent his time there using the libraries and participating in Latin discussions with the English students. Holberg's travels were a main inspiration in his later writings – these experiences matured him both artistically and morally. Holberg let himself be inspired by old Latin comedies and newer French comedies he had seen in Paris, and street theaters in Rome. His writings can be divided into three periods, during which he produced mainly history, 1711–1718; mainly satirical poetry and stage comedies, 1719–1731; and mainly philosophy, 1731–1750. His rich output of comedies during
427-432: A posteriori knowledge or empirical knowledge , knowledge whose justification or falsification depends on experience or experiment. A priori knowledge, on the other hand, is seen either as innate or as justified by rational intuition and therefore as not dependent on empirical evidence. Rationalism fully accepts that there is knowledge a priori , which is either outright rejected by empiricism or accepted only in
488-407: A proposition, the subject has to be able to entertain this proposition, i.e. possess the relevant concepts. For example, experience is necessary to entertain the proposition "if something is red all over then it is not green all over" because the terms "red" and "green" have to be acquired this way. But the sense of dependence most relevant to empirical evidence concerns the status of justification of
549-457: A rational/ empirical train of thought , and this is important because of his status as an author; both in his time and ours. Holberg was open to biblical criticism, and his religious representation was, for the most part, deism . He was critical of the notion of original sin , instead subscribing to the notion of man's free will. Holberg's declared intentions with his authorship were to enlighten people to better society. This also fits in with
610-540: A restricted way as knowledge of relations between our concepts but not as pertaining to the external world. Scientific evidence is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical evidence meet the standards dictated by scientific methods . Sources of empirical evidence are sometimes divided into observation and experimentation , the difference being that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed. The concept of evidence
671-443: A that-clause, like "that something is burning". But it runs counter to the common practice of treating non-propositional sense-experiences, like bodily pains, as evidence. Its defenders sometimes combine it with the view that evidence has to be factive, i.e. that only attitudes towards true propositions constitute evidence. In this view, there is no misleading evidence. The olfactory experience of smoke would count as evidence if it
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#1732873733472732-400: Is an important advocate of the position that theory-ladenness concerning scientific paradigms plays a central role in science. A thing is evidence for a proposition if it epistemically supports this proposition or indicates that the supported proposition is true. Evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. There are various competing theories about
793-894: Is based on Holberg's last play, Den forvandlede Brudgom. There is a statue of Holberg and a boulevard named after him ( Holbergsallmenningen ) in the centre of Bergen, Norway . A crater on Mercury is named for him. Christian Nielsen Holberg (Redirected from Christian Nielsen Holberg ) Norwegian Army officer (c. 1625–1686) Christen (Vielum?) Nielsen Holberg Born c. 1625 Died 1686 Allegiance Denmark-Norway Years of service 1640-1679 Commands Sundfjordske Kompani Sognske Kompani Bergenhus fortress Battles / wars Second Northern War Battle of Halden 1659 Second Anglo-Dutch War Battle of Vågen 1665 Scanian War Siege of Bohus 1676 Christen Nielsen Holberg (a.k.a. Christian Holberg , c. 1625 – 1686)
854-604: Is general consensus that everyday objects like books or houses are observable since they are accessible via unaided perception, but disagreement starts for objects that are only accessible through aided perception. This includes using telescopes to study distant galaxies, microscopes to study bacteria or using cloud chambers to study positrons. So the question is whether distant galaxies, bacteria or positrons should be regarded as observable or merely theoretical objects. Some even hold that any measurement process of an entity should be considered an observation of this entity. In this sense,
915-473: Is given more weight, although science done poorly is also subject to such biases, as in the example of p -hacking . In the philosophy of science, it is sometimes held that there are two sources of empirical evidence: observation and experimentation . The idea behind this distinction is that only experimentation involves manipulation or intervention: phenomena are actively created instead of being passively observed. For example, inserting viral DNA into
976-482: Is legitimate in other contexts. For example, anecdotal evidence from a friend about how to treat a certain disease constitutes empirical evidence that this treatment works but would not be considered scientific evidence. Others have argued that the traditional empiricist definition of empirical evidence as perceptual evidence is too narrow for much of scientific practice, which uses evidence from various kinds of non-perceptual equipment. Central to scientific evidence
1037-492: Is no general agreement on how the terms evidence and empirical are to be defined. Often different fields work with quite different conceptions. In epistemology, evidence is what justifies beliefs or what determines whether holding a certain belief is rational . This is only possible if the evidence is possessed by the person, which has prompted various epistemologists to conceive evidence as private mental states like experiences or other beliefs. In philosophy of science , on
1098-445: Is of central importance in epistemology and in philosophy of science but plays different roles in these two fields. In epistemology, evidence is what justifies beliefs or what determines whether holding a certain doxastic attitude is rational . For example, the olfactory experience of smelling smoke justifies or makes it rational to hold the belief that something is burning. It is usually held that for justification to work,
1159-440: Is only present in modern science and responsible for the scientific revolution . This is sometimes phrased through the expression that modern science actively "puts questions to nature". This distinction also underlies the categorization of sciences into experimental sciences, like physics, and observational sciences, like astronomy. While the distinction is relatively intuitive in paradigmatic cases, it has proven difficult to give
1220-447: Is that it was arrived at by following scientific method in the context of some scientific theory . But people rely on various forms of empirical evidence in their everyday lives that have not been obtained this way and therefore do not qualify as scientific evidence. One problem with non-scientific evidence is that it is less reliable, for example, due to cognitive biases like the anchoring effect , in which information obtained earlier
1281-504: Is to account for the justification of knowledge pertaining to fields like mathematics and logic, for example, that 3 is a prime number or that modus ponens is a valid form of deduction. The difficulty is due to the fact that there seems to be no good candidate of empirical evidence that could justify these beliefs. Such cases have prompted empiricists to allow for certain forms of knowledge a priori, for example, concerning tautologies or relations between our concepts. These concessions preserve
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#17328737334721342-403: Is to hold that it is a mistake to identify the empirical with what is observable or sensible. Instead, it has been suggested that empirical evidence can include unobservable entities as long as they are detectable through suitable measurements. A problem with this approach is that it is rather far from the original meaning of "empirical", which contains the reference to experience. Knowledge or
1403-441: Is usually seen as excluding purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or intuitions used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles. The terms empirical and observable are closely related and sometimes used as synonyms. There is an active debate in contemporary philosophy of science as to what should be regarded as observable or empirical in contrast to unobservable or merely theoretical objects. There
1464-404: Is usually understood as what is observable, in contrast to unobservable or theoretical objects. It is generally accepted that unaided perception constitutes observation, but it is disputed to what extent objects accessible only to aided perception, like bacteria seen through a microscope or positrons detected in a cloud chamber, should be regarded as observable. Empirical evidence is essential to
1525-418: Is why it is more common to hold that all kinds of mental states, including stored but currently unconscious beliefs, can act as evidence. Various of the roles played by evidence in reasoning, for example, in explanatory, probabilistic and deductive reasoning, suggest that evidence has to be propositional in nature, i.e. that it is correctly expressed by propositional attitude verbs like "believe" together with
1586-487: The Holberg International Memorial Prize . The 4.5 million kroner (ca. €520,000) endowed prize was awarded to Julia Kristeva in 2004, to Jürgen Habermas in 2005, and to Shmuel Eisenstadt in 2006. There is a town named after Holberg on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. It was founded by Danish immigrants in 1907. Dan Shore 's opera The Beautiful Bridegroom, for six sopranos,
1647-668: The Swedes . On August 2, 1665 he participated in the Battle of Vågen as a Major. In 1672 he was a lieutenant colonel in the Sundfjordske Kompani. In 1675 he was a member of the regimental staff and the commander of Sognske Kompani . During the Gyldenløve War he was given the responsibility of raising two new companies for the regiment before joining it in Sweden in 1676 where he participated in
1708-416: The justification of a belief is said to be a posteriori if it is based on empirical evidence. A posteriori refers to what depends on experience (what comes after experience), in contrast to a priori , which stands for what is independent of experience (what comes before experience). For example, the proposition that "all bachelors are unmarried" is knowable a priori since its truth only depends on
1769-427: The rationalist view, which holds that some knowledge is independent of experience, either because it is innate or because it is justified by reason or rational reflection alone. Expressed through the distinction between knowledge a priori and a posteriori from the previous section, rationalism affirms that there is knowledge a priori, which is denied by empiricism in this strict form. One difficulty for empiricists
1830-589: The Scanian War Military personnel of the Anglo-Dutch Wars Ludvig Holberg Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Empirical Empirical evidence is evidence obtained through sense experience or experimental procedure. It is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law . There
1891-474: The amount donated to the school should be larger than the amount he would pay in taxes. At the same time, he earned the title of Baron of Holberg . Holberg's casket, a work of Johannes Wiedewelt , can be seen in Sorø Monastery Church. It can be seen from Holberg's correspondence that he was very conservative with money where he thought it would not be of any use; for example, he was against raising
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1952-573: The debate, but it started a rumor in Copenhagen that Holberg had converted to Catholicism as Winsløw had, and as a consequence he felt it necessary to deny this to the Danish public, giving voice to anti-Catholic views on several occasions. Holberg believed in people's inner divine light of reason, and to him it was important that the first goal of education was to teach students to use their senses and intellect, instead of uselessly memorising school books. This
2013-484: The evidence has to be possessed by the believer. The most straightforward way to account for this type of evidence possession is to hold that evidence consists of the private mental states possessed by the believer. Some philosophers restrict evidence even further, for example, to only conscious, propositional or factive mental states. Restricting evidence to conscious mental states has the implausible consequence that many simple everyday beliefs would be unjustified. This
2074-402: The exact definition of the terms evidence and empirical . Different fields, like epistemology, the sciences or legal systems, often associate different concepts with these terms. An important distinction among theories of evidence is whether they identify evidence with private mental states or with public physical objects. Concerning the term empirical , there is a dispute about where to draw
2135-457: The existence of metaphysical knowledge, while rationalists seek justification for metaphysical claims in metaphysical intuitions. Scientific evidence is closely related to empirical evidence. Some theorists, like Carlos Santana, have argued that there is a sense in which not all empirical evidence constitutes scientific evidence. One reason for this is that the standards or criteria that scientists apply to evidence exclude certain evidence that
2196-402: The fact that the available evidence often provides equal support to either theory and therefore cannot arbitrate between them. Theory-ladenness refers to the idea that evidence already includes theoretical assumptions. These assumptions can hinder it from acting as neutral arbiter. It can also lead to a lack of shared evidence if different scientists do not share these assumptions. Thomas Kuhn
2257-535: The first available position, which was teaching metaphysics . Later, he became a professor and taught rhetoric and Latin . Finally, he was given a professorship in the subject which he prized most and was most productive in, history. Holberg was well-educated and well-traveled. In his adolescence, he visited large cities in countries such as the Netherlands and France, and lived for a short period of time in Rome ; and for
2318-424: The idea of the academy, worked out suggestions to which academic direction it would take and was asked by the king's superintendent to refer some professors for the school. The influential Enlightenment writer Jens Schielderup Sneedorff was appointed professor at Sorø Academy at Holbergs request. The agreement with the king included that Holberg would be free of taxes from any income from the farms he owned, because
2379-468: The interior of the Sun is observable since neutrinos originating there can be detected. The difficulty with this debate is that there is a continuity of cases going from looking at something with the naked eye, through a window, through a pair of glasses, through a microscope, etc. Because of this continuity, drawing the line between any two adjacent cases seems to be arbitrary. One way to avoid these difficulties
2440-427: The line between observable or empirical objects in contrast to unobservable or merely theoretical objects. The traditional view proposes that evidence is empirical if it is constituted by or accessible to sensory experience. This involves experiences arising from the stimulation of the sense organs, like visual or auditory experiences, but the term is often used in a wider sense including memories and introspection. It
2501-422: The meanings of the words used in the expression. The proposition "some bachelors are happy", on the other hand, is only knowable a posteriori since it depends on experience of the world as its justifier. Immanuel Kant held that the difference between a posteriori and a priori is tantamount to the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge. Two central questions for this distinction concern
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2562-464: The middle period was shaped by his role as house dramatist at Denmark's first public theater, opened in Copenhagen in 1721. These comedies are the works on which his fame rests today, and they were an immediate and immense success. However the poverty caused by the Copenhagen Fire of 1728 , brought a wave of depression and puritanism upon the nation, which clashed with Holberg's satirical works, and as
2623-460: The most possible profit, Holberg published his own works and sold them as papers under a subscription to interested people, either bound or in looseleaf sheets. Holberg also tried, with some success, a publisher in Norway. There, his book about natural and international law was printed in several editions but did not garner him financial gains. Holberg lived modestly and was able to invest a large part of
2684-517: The only one of his properties which is preserved because the others in Bergen, Copenhagen and Havrebjerg have been either burned down or torn down. Holberg was both unmarried and childless, but in the end of his life had a small fortune. He was interested in leaving a legacy and left his estate to Sorø Academy , which was a royal riding academy, with the goal of creating an institution at a university level for young men coming from nobility. Holberg supported
2745-438: The other hand, evidence is understood as that which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories. For this role, evidence must be public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states, so that evidence may foster scientific consensus . The term empirical comes from Greek ἐμπειρία empeiría , i.e. 'experience'. In this context, it
2806-456: The picture of Holberg as of the age of enlightenment. It is worth noting that Holberg enjoyed larger cities with deep culture – small cities and nature did not interest him. Like many scholars of his time, Holberg also influenced science. Holberg's concept for science was that it should be inductive (through experience built on observations) and practical to use. One example is his Betænkning over den nu regierende Qvæg-Syge ( Memorandum on
2867-436: The prevalent cattle disease ) (1745) where he reasons that the disease is caused by microorganisms . Holberg had to live a modest life in his youth and early adulthood. He earned a living as a tutor and as a travel companion for noblemen and tried to work as a private sports coach at the university. He received further support from a grant to travel to other universities in other countries, namely Protestant universities, but it
2928-432: The profits from the sale of his books on the side and lend them out or invest them in more active ventures. Several times in his writings he criticized townspeople and nobles who used their resources in unproductive ways to be carried round in chairs, to live in lavish houses and waste money on luxury. He ate reasonably and did not use his money on being driven around. He said that his travelling on foot, and continued walking,
2989-458: The purpose of becoming a lawyer, it was normal to study abroad. In 1736 the Danish Lawyer degree was established at the University of Copenhagen, a degree which continued to be granted for 200 years, and for which Holberg's writings remained common reading material throughout this time. Holberg was formally appointed assistant professor after having first worked as one without pay. He had to accept
3050-505: The relevant sense of "experience" and of "dependence". The paradigmatic justification of knowledge a posteriori consists in sensory experience, but other mental phenomena, like memory or introspection, are also usually included in it. But purely intellectual experiences, like rational insights or intuitions used to justify basic logical or mathematical principles, are normally excluded from it. There are different senses in which knowledge may be said to depend on experience. In order to know
3111-498: The role of neutral arbiter between Newton's and Einstein's theory of gravitation by confirming Einstein's theory. For scientific consensus, it is central that evidence is public and uncontroversial, like observable physical objects or events and unlike private mental states. This way it can act as a shared ground for proponents of competing theories. Two issues threatening this role are the problem of underdetermination and theory-ladenness . The problem of underdetermination concerns
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#17328737334723172-935: The siege of Bohus Fortress . Upon returning to Norway later that year he was sent back to Bergen to be temporary commander of Bergenhus Fortress in the place of Johan Caspar von Cicignon . In 1679 he left the service of Bergenhusiske Regiment. He died in 1686. References [ edit ] ^ Bricka, Carl Frederik (1893). Dansk biografisk Lexikon. VII. Bind. I. Hansen–Holmsted . Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandels Forlag (F. Hegel & Søn). pp. 518–519 . Retrieved December 24, 2018 . Bragstad, Jakob; Fjordane Infanteriregiment nr 10, I gamal og ny tid; 1996; Elanders Forlag; Oslo ( ISBN 82-90545-57-6 ) Per Gjendem A private page on Ludvig Holberg's anscestry Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christen_Nielsen_Holberg&oldid=1258838273 " Categories : 1620s births 1686 deaths Norwegian Army personnel People of
3233-426: The spirit of empiricism insofar as the restriction to experience still applies to knowledge about the external world. In some fields, like metaphysics or ethics , the choice between empiricism and rationalism makes a difference not just for how a given claim is justified but for whether it is justified at all. This is best exemplified in metaphysics, where empiricists tend to take a skeptical position, thereby denying
3294-405: The wage of the pedagogues of Havrebjerg. Holberg commented several times that he was willing to use money if it were put to good use, for example, he would use money on medication and supplies for his farm hands if they suffered from injury or illness. When academia had large economic difficulties, because funding was very limited, Holberg agreed to help fund the academy (at Sorø Academy) while he
3355-541: Was a condition he did not respect since he searched out those places where the discussion were the loudest and the experiences were the largest. During his stay in England, Holberg set his eyes on academic authoring and on his return, he started writing about history. Later, he wrote also about natural and international law, possibly at the prompting of an older professor who likened him to natural and international law authors such as Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf . To make
3416-450: Was a new, modern understanding of the question of religion, and it shows he was a man of the Age of Enlightenment . Holberg was interested in intellect because he felt that this is what binds society together. He also wondered why there was so much evil in the world, especially when one could let reason lead the way. One could say that he distanced himself from a religious explanation of evil towards
3477-596: Was alive. Norwegian Edvard Grieg composed the Holberg Suite (opus 40) to honor Holberg. The suite is in the style of country dances from Holberg's time. In 1911 Johan Halvorsen composed incidental music for a production of Holberg's Barselstuen (The Lying-in Room) in Oslo . Halvorsen later arranged the music into his Suite Ancienne op. 31, which he dedicated to the memory of Holberg. The Norwegian University of Bergen awards
3538-574: Was an officer in the Norwegian Army . He was also the father of Ludvig Holberg . In 1653 he was hired as a lieutenant to serve with Bergenhusiske Regiment both in Bergenhus len and on Bergenhus Fortress In 1659 he was appointed commander of Sundfjordske Kompani of Bergenhusiske Regiment with the rank of captain. During the Bjelke War he and his company participated in the defence of Halden against
3599-520: Was not particularly interested in theology as a career, settling for an attestats (similar to a Bachelor's degree today), which gave him the right to work as a priest; he did not attempt a baccalaureus , magister or doctorate in the subject, nor did he follow a career as a theology professor, priest, or bishop. In Holberg's youth, it was common to study theology and specialize according to one's degree, for example in Greek, Latin, philosophy or history. For
3660-509: Was produced by a fire but not if it was produced by a smoke generator. This position has problems in explaining why it is still rational for the subject to believe that there is a fire even though the olfactory experience cannot be considered evidence. In philosophy of science, evidence is understood as that which confirms or disconfirms scientific hypotheses and arbitrates between competing theories. Measurements of Mercury's "anomalous" orbit, for example, constitute evidence that plays
3721-467: Was the reason he could keep his malaria , which had plagued him in the south, under control. When he came to the conclusion he could put his money in better ventures than trading, he started investing in real estate. His first large property purchase, Brorupgaard close to Havrebjerg , happened in stages; first he lent money to the owner at that time, and later took over the farm himself. Some years later, Holberg also purchased Tersløsegard by Dianalund,
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