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123-596: The village is occupied by the Fuliiru and Vira people, Bantu -speaking people who live on the high plateaus situated to the east of the DRC. Lubarika was traditionally inhabited by Fuliiru people . In the 1940s, during the Belgian colonial era , Lubarika was popular due to its mild climate and being a cotton-growing region based mainly on forced labour that spanned from Ruzizi Plain and reached as far as south, north and west areas of

246-529: A "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace. In the early stages of the First and Second Congo Wars , a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to

369-608: A Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa. Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in the South Kivu Province. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of the ethnic violence , there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as

492-436: A badge of their new identity. Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin traces the clan's origins to Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi, believed to have arrived in the 16th century, per Belgian colonial records, or the 17th century, as argued by historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza. Other accounts suggest that the Bafuliru and the neighboring Vira people migrated from the northeast, crossing Lwindi and settling in

615-498: A coercive environment or such person's or persons' incapacity to give genuine consent. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on systemic rape sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, in a report in 1998, stipulated that sexual violence is "any violence, physical or psychological, carried out through sexual means by targeting sexuality". This definition encompasses physical as well as psychological attacks aimed at "a person's sexual characteristics, such as forcing

738-547: A colonial administrator who extensively studied the Bantu communities in eastern Belgian Congo , noted that the Bahamba clan migrated from the direction of Lwindi, led by Chief Kikanwe, to their present territory, which they found uninhabited. Moeller de Laddersous describes the Bahamba as the region's earliest settlers, in an area known as "Bufulero". Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changes their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as

861-411: A combination thereof. Moreover, men may be reluctant to talk about being victim of crimes of sexual violence. In this regard, the way in which societies construct the notion of masculinity plays a role. Masculinity and victimization may be considered incompatible, in particular in societies where masculinity is equated with the ability to exert power, leading to non-reporting. The incompatibility between

984-600: A community-oriented approach encourages not just victims and advocates to spread awareness and prevent sexual violence, but allocates responsibility to wider community to do so as well. The CDC's report on Sexual Violence Prevention: Beginning the Dialogue suggests following its four step model. Child sexual abuse prevention programmes were developed in the United States of America during the 1970s and originally delivered to children. Programmes delivered to parents were developed in

1107-671: A crime against humanity. Sexual violence is further explained in the ICC's Elements of Crimes, which the Court uses in its interpretation and application of Article 7. The Elements of Crime establishes that sexual violence is: An act of sexual nature against one or more persons or caused such person or persons to engage in an act of sexual nature by force, or by threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or persons or another person, or by taking advantage of

1230-401: A family member, an intimate partner, an acquaintance, or they may be a complete stranger. While it is estimated that 93% to 97% perpetrators of sexual violence are men, sexual violence is often erroneously dismissed as a women's issue . The primary motivators behind sexually violent acts are believed to be power and control, and not, as it is widely perceived, sexual desire . Sexual violence

1353-589: A favorable environment for growing cassava , coffee , banana , beans and maize . The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and the Elila rivers , as well as the torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika . The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on

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1476-405: A feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system of clientelism , where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy

1599-422: A form of call-and-response singing, where one group of singers will lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with a harmonized phrase . This technique creates a rich and layered sound that is both engaging and captivating. Bafuliru also have songs that praise their leaders and ancestors, and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events. Wedding songs are central to

1722-438: A greater risk of sexual violence, including prostitution. Explaining sexual violence is complicated by the multiple forms it takes and contexts in which it occurs. There is considerable overlap between forms of sexual violence and intimate partner violence . There are factors increasing the risk of someone being coerced into sex, factors increasing the risk of an individual person forcing sex on another person, and factors within

1845-473: A historical perspective, sexual violence was considered as only being perpetrated by men against women and as being commonplace and "normal" during both war and peace times from the Ancient Greeks to the 20th century. This led to the negligence of any indications of what the methods, aims and magnitude of such violence was. It took until the end of the 20th century for sexual violence to no longer be considered

1968-636: A job or of not obtaining a job that is sought. It may also occur when the person being attacked is unable to give consent – for instance, while drunk, drugged, asleep or mentally incapable of understanding the situation. Such broader definitions of sexual violence are found within international law. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) has established in article 7(1)(g) that "rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" constitutes

2091-673: A large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru, Babembe , Warega , and Bavira individuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such as Burundi , Tanzania , Uganda , Kenya , Zambia , and Mozambique . The displacement caused

2214-506: A large number of women and children, ex- FAR / Interahamwe soldiers, who had just been defeated, and political and administrative authorities who supervised the Rwandan Genocide . Many Rwandan refugees, as well as Zairian civilians, fled the village as AFDL troops were on a rampage of killing anyone in sight. Those who attempted entry into Kakumbukumbu, a village five kilometers from Lubarika, were captured and killed by AFDL troops. After

2337-516: A local treat and are also exported to nearby countries like Rwanda and Burundi. Some are sold in Bukavu. Two species of coffee exist in the Bafuliru Chiefdom are Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora . The arabica species is the most common in Bafuliru Chiefdom. It is a culture of exporting coffee to Burundi. Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety of traditional instruments such as

2460-526: A minor issue and to gradually become criminalized. Sexual violence is still used in modern warfare as recently as in the Rwandan genocide and in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war , targeting both Israelis and Palestinians . The World Health Organization (WHO) in its 2002 World Report on Violence and Health defined sexual violence as: "any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against

2583-577: A near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence. Kifuliru is a member of the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The English linguist Malcolm Guthrie classified it in the D50 subgroup along with Shi , Havu , Vira, Tembo , and Nyindu , placing Kifuliru among the African Great Lakes Bantu languages . Achille Emile Meeussen and linguists at

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2706-713: A newly established ethnic group known as " Banyamulenge " (literally 'those who live in Mulenge ') through an entirely fabricated ethnogenesis . This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as their ancestral homeland . Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as " indigenous ", vouching they possessed two " chefferies " (traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to

2829-425: A person to strip naked in public, mutilating a person's genitals, or slicing off a woman's breasts". The Special Rapporteur's definition also refers to situations "in which two victims are forced to perform sexual acts on one another or to harm one another in a sexual manner". The WHO lists a number of examples of circumstances that sexual violence can be committed: A thorough definition is necessary in monitoring

2952-406: A person's sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work". WHO's definition of sexual violence includes but is not limited to rape, which is defined as physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus , using a penis , other body parts or an object. Sexual violence consists in

3075-447: A purposeful action of which the intention is often to inflict severe humiliation on the victims and diminish human dignity. In the case where others are forced to watch acts of sexual violence, such acts aim at intimidating the larger community. Other acts incorporated in sexual violence are various forms of sexual assaults , such as forced contact between mouth and penis, vulva or anus. Sexual violence can include coerced contact between

3198-474: A result of an honor killing in response to a sexual assault is also a factor of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer disproportionately from these aspects, sexual violence can occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and strangers, as well as intimate partners. It is rarely a crime of passion , and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims to express power and dominance over

3321-484: A result of their trauma may seek psychological counseling and therapy. Informal treatment, or support, includes social support, which can provide avenues for social justice engagement. Themes of self-reflection, social support, and activism aimed at supporting other survivors and preventing sexual violence are associated with improved functioning and facilitating positive change post trauma. Involvement in anti-sexual violence activism can aid survivors in making sense of

3444-517: A ripple effect of the humanitarian crisis , with many facing severe challenges, including inadequate food and water supplies , inadequate medical facilities , and substandard living conditions. On 14 May 2000, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulenge child soldiers , perpetrated a massacre in the village of Katogota . The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from

3567-581: A significant role in the chiefdom's customs and traditions, particularly during marriage ceremonies. In Fuliru mythology, it is believed that one cannot engage in any strenuous activities without a banana. Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or after mourning, an individual intending to marry must present a jar of fermented banana and sorghum beverage , referred to as " I mbindi ya mavu yo kudeterakwo " in Kifuliru, meaning "the jar of alcohol that allows you to speak". This jar of banana alcohol must be offered to

3690-712: A social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000. The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be

3813-415: A spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat to Luvungi , where they received support from Belgian colonists , who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under

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3936-444: A strategy to destabilize communities and demoralize other men. The use of sexual violence as a weapon of war was widespread conflicts such as Rwanda, Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Kosovo. The perpetrators of female-directed violence in times of conflict are often armed groups and local men. As with sexual violence against women, sexual violence against men can take different forms, and occur in any kind of context, including at home or in

4059-604: A sub-chief under Burundian King Mwezi Gisabo from the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of the Bafuliru Chiefdom . Facing significant territorial setbacks,

4182-590: A town situated in the north-western region of the Uvira Territory in South Kivu Province , resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including two medical personnel , lost their lives in a hospital massacre . The armed assailants also pillaged the Lemera Hospital , the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north of Uvira . In October 1998,

4305-468: A vital food source for the Bafuliru, particularly for those inhabiting the Ruzizi Plain and the entire Bafuliru Chiefdom. Having a cassava field is regarded as a treasure trove and is highly valued by the community. Besides its roots, cassava leaves are also consumable, and its stems are used for lumber . Cassava's significance goes beyond its dietary value and practical uses. It has a significant role in

4428-487: Is Kivuluga, a fusion of Shi and Kifuliru, which is predominantly spoken in the Itara-Luvungi groupement . This dialect emerged due to the region's close linguistic proximity of Shi and Kifuliru speakers. The Bafuliru economy is almost exclusively agriculturally based, although they also own and raise cattle for milk and meat; their homelands in the South Kivu Province are some of the most intensively farmed areas of

4551-585: Is a serious infringement upon a child's rights, and one which can result in significant physical and psychological trauma to the victim. A 2002 WHO study approximated that 223 million children have been victims of sexual violence involving physical contact. Yet, due to the sensitivity of the issue and the tendency of the crime to stay hidden, the true figure is likely to be much higher. Girls are more frequent targets for sexual abuse than boys. The WHO study found that 150 million girls were abused compared to 73 million boys. Other sources also conclude that girls face

4674-552: Is a serious public health problem and it has both short and long term negative physical and psychological effects on health and well-being. There is evidence that male and female victims of sexual violence may experience similar mental health, behavioral and social consequences. Watts, Hossain, and Zimmerman (2013) reported that 72.4% of the survivors had at least one gynecological complaint. 52.2% had chronic lower abdominal pain, 27.4% had abnormal vaginal bleeding, 26.6% had infertility, 25.3% had genital sores, and 22.5% had swellings in

4797-399: Is also post-catastrophe sexual opportunism. Sexual opportunism during and after catastrophic events is largely unreported. Massive spikes in human trafficking of girls and other humanitarian abuses has been reported in events such as after the devastating April 2015 Nepal earthquake . Perpetrators may come from various backgrounds, and they may be someone known by the victim like a friend,

4920-428: Is any harmful or unwanted sexual act —or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion —or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent , by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations,

5043-467: Is considered a tendency to hide sexual assaults directed at men as something else, and it is believed to contribute to the poor- or lack of reporting of such crimes, and can arise from the belief that sexual violence is a women's issue and that men cannot be victims of sexual assaults. Sexual violence against children is a form of child abuse . It includes harassment and rape, as well as the use of children in prostitution or pornography. Sexual violence

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5166-684: Is considered abuse even if the victim may have previously engaged in consensual sexual activities with the perpetrator. Men and women can both fall victim to this type of abuse although women are more often the victims than men, and men perpetrate more often than women. Moreover, lesbian , bisexual , and trans women are more likely than cis and heterosexual women to experience intimate partner violence, which includes sexual violence. Male persons are more likely to commit domestic sexual violence regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation. A 2006 WHO study on physical and sexual domestic violence against women conducted across ten countries found that

5289-408: Is not well known. Early interventions and the provision of psychological support may prevent or minimize many of the harmful and lasting psychological impacts of sexual assault. The interventions that have been developed can be categorized as follows. There is also a public health approach to prevention. Because sexual violence is widespread and directly or indirectly affects a community as whole,

5412-403: Is often used as a method of warfare ( war rape ), as a form of attack on the enemy, typifying the conquest and degradation of its women or men or captured male or female fighters. Even if strongly prohibited by international human rights law , customary law and international humanitarian law , enforcement mechanisms are still fragile or even non-existent in many corners of the world. From

5535-446: Is possible for individuals to be targeted based on sexual orientation or gender-exhibiting behaviour. Such attacks, which are often called " corrective rapes " have been performed to conform an individual to a heterosexual orientation or to more accepted notions of behaviour for the perceived gender of the victim; asexual individuals are also particularly targeted. Domestic sexual violence includes all forms of unwanted sexual activity. It

5658-725: Is primarily an income generator rather than a food source at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center ( Cenre Developpement Communautaire ; CDC) base in Kiringye . Beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera , covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge . They are marketed in Bukavu and Uvira , with a large portion exported to nearby countries like Burundi and Rwanda. While beans, alongside rice, are exported, they usually fetch lower prices due to

5781-450: Is rather a violent, aggressive and hostile act aiming to degrade, dominate, humiliate, terrorize and control the victim. Some of the reasons for committing sexual violence are that it reassures the offender about his sexual adequacy, it discharges frustration, compensates for feelings of helplessness, and achieves sexual gratification. Data on sexually violent men are somewhat limited and heavily biased towards apprehended rapists, except in

5904-516: Is situated in two distinct types of plateaus : the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau . The Middle Plateau spans between Luvungi and Mulenge , with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises several groupements and villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Lemera , Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also

6027-501: Is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Kingwengwe Mupe argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) the Balemera clan to occupy Uvira Territory. According to Mupe's account,

6150-410: Is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic , pervasive, and most common human rights violations. Sexual violence is a serious public health problem and has profound short- and long-term physical and mental health impacts such as increased risks of sexual and reproductive health problems, suicide , and HIV infection. Murder occurring either during a sexual assault or as

6273-408: The Bantu subgroup within the Niger-Congo family , closely related to Vira, Shi , Havu , Tembo , and Nyindu . Occupationally, Fuliru primarily work in agriculture and herding , with a notable reputation in pottery and basket-weaving . Their handcrafted baskets are used for storage, decoration, and even as musical instruments. The Fuliru, like many other communities in the eastern part of

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6396-728: The Belgian Congo . At the commencement of the First Congo War , on 18 October 1996, Lubarika was attacked by the AFDL ( Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre) , the APR, and the FAB ( Forces Armées Burundaises ). Thousands of Rwandan refugees as well as Zairian civilians were killed in Lubarika when AFDL attacked Zaire from neighboring Uganda and Rwanda . Among these refugees were

6519-458: The Berlin Conference . This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge" pseudo - tribe with the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis. According to René Lemarchand , Banyamulenge constitute

6642-620: The Congo Basin coincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of the Congo Free State , and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities. In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to

6765-536: The Fizi Territory , which was further subdivided into five sectors, including Itombwe , Lulenge , Mutambala , Ndandja, and Tangani'a . Conversely, the Bafuliru Chiefdom borders Rwanda and Burundi through the Ruzizi Plain in the Uvira Territory . The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such as groundnuts and cotton , with Luvungi , Lubarika , and Luberizi being particularly noteworthy areas for such cultivation . The Fuliru collectivity

6888-863: The Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda (MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the current Masisi Territory , the Bwito Chiefdom in the Rutshuru Territory , the Buzi-Ziralo grouping ( groupement ) in the Kalehe Territory , and Moba in Katanga . Other eastern regions such as Baraka and Marungu were also prepared to welcome

7011-815: The Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren categorized Kifuliru under J54, describing it as an "interlacustrine" language. The Fuliru are connected to the Vira in a Fuliru-Vira culture cluster. Both ethnic groups are interlacustrine, living between the African Great Lakes. Kifuliru is commonly spoken in the Uvira Territory , with over 275,000 speakers. It is mutually intelligible with several neighboring languages, including Nyindu and Vira, with which it shares 90% lexical similarity , and Shi, with which it has about 70% lexical similarity. One notable dialect of Kifuliru

7134-643: The Tutsi members of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from their ancestral lands against their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On 6 October 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault on Lemera ,

7257-452: The ngoma (drum), xylophone , and flute , which are used to create complex rhythms and melodies . The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence. The ngoma, in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates

7380-569: The Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defend Bwesho . Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to

7503-509: The Bafuliru and Babembe communities, who sought refuge in Burundi on 10 June 2004, to escape ongoing ethnic persecution . The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated by political instability , resource scarcity , and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, including militias and rebel factions, who compete for control over

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7626-500: The Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having their throats slashed , and their bodies were thrown into the Ruzizi River to dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others to burn to death . The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from

7749-578: The Bafuliru's ethnic boundaries, which stretched along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain from Moira to the Luvivi River, encompassing territories that sometimes overlapped with Bavira lands. Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza points out that Chief Luhama—a central figure in Bafuliru history and founder of the Bahamba dynasty—consolidated power by dividing his domain among his three sons to foster stability and manage local demands for autonomy. Luhama's strategic division granted his eldest son, Nyamugira, to control

7872-524: The Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold in Lemera, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain. In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, the Barundi arrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from

7995-673: The Bavira, forming a unique group that did not adopt the Bafuliru's original leadership structures. Among other prominent clans, the Bazige (or Bazeke), who were given land by Chief Muluta to their leader Ngabwe, either overcame or were assimilated into the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Oral history suggests the Bazige had an autonomous chiefdom in the present-day Muhungu groupement , which they governed under Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, before being conquered and subjugated by Mahina Mukogabwe (often referred to as Nyamugira Mukogabwe II)—a Fuliru chieftain whose reign spanned

8118-775: The Bavira, which they acquired between the Kiliba and Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. The Mwami of the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while the Mwami of the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance. After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni,

8241-414: The Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of any chieftaincy . This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by

8364-405: The DRC , face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related to land disputes , political marginalization , and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual and gender-based violence amplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in

8487-537: The Fuliru oral tradition . Serving both an educational and entertainment function, these songs convey cultural wisdom, teaching politeness, respect, and environmental awareness to the young couple and the wider community. Before the introduction of literacy in the 20th century, these songs were memorized and performed orally. Through the medium of song, Bafuliru wedding traditions offer insight into their worldview and everyday life. Sexual violence Sexual violence

8610-407: The Fuliru eventually settled in the region now known as Uvira. The origins of the Bafuliru Chiefdom , prior to its formal establishment as an administrative chiefdom of Uvira Territory in 1928 under Belgian colonial rule, are complex and subject to historical interpretation. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous ,

8733-499: The Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasional cattle raiding , leading to a deep and long-lasting social interaction that particularly impacted the Fuliru people. The Banyarwanda later acquired Mulenge and Upper Sange from the Bafuliru, and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, the Ruzizi Plain , and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through

8856-560: The High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation of crops such as Irish potatoes and beans . This plateau is mostly used for grazing cattle and is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau. Bafuliru Chiefdom is subdivided in groupements (groupings) governed by customary chiefs ( chefs de groupement ) who are appointed by

8979-434: The United States, where research has also been conducted on male college students. Despite the limited amount of information on sexually violent men, it appears that sexual violence is found in almost all countries (though with differences in prevalence), in all socioeconomic classes and in all age groups from childhood on. Data on sexually violent men also show that most direct their acts at women whom they already know. Among

9102-1119: The abdomen. 18.7% of the participants also had severe psychological and surgical morbidity including alcoholism. 69.4% showed significant psychological distress, 15.8% attempted suicide, 75.6% had at least one surgical complaint. 4.8% of the participants had a positive HIV status. In child sexual abuse (CSA) cases, the child may develop mental health disorders that can extend into adult life especially if sexual abuse involved actual intercourse. Studies on abused boys have shown that around one in five continue in later life to molest children themselves. CSA may lead to negative behavioral patterns in later life, learning difficulties as well as regression of or slower development. The table below gives some examples of possible physical and psychological consequences of sexual violence: Examples of fatal outcomes related to sexual violence Examples of non-fatal outcomes related to sexual violence Physical consequences Psychological consequences In some cases victims of sexual violence may be stigmatized and ostracized by their families and others. Societal perceptions that

9225-517: The already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions. In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed in an attack on the town of Mutarule . The attack was believed to be ethnically motivated . The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired by ethnic hatred . In January 2019, Twigwaneho and Ngumino,

9348-476: The appointment of a local chief ( chefs de groupement ) or a traditional ruler who was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold

9471-469: The area. According to the scholar Cuypers, this migration could have included a prolonged detour through Maniema rather than a direct movement. Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, settled around the highlands of Lemera , while the Vira, led by Kirungu, established themselves on Munanira's peak, eventually spreading to the valley lowlands and

9594-414: The assault. The prevailing view amongst scientists is that this form of tonic immobility occurs in humans when no other options to avoid the sexual violence are available anymore, and the brain paralyses the body in order to allow it to survive with minimal damage. The following are individual risks factors: The following are relationship risk factors: The following are community factors: There

9717-463: The attendees; otherwise, the speaker is unable to convey a meaningful message. The beverage is also called Kasigisi . Additionally, during childbirth , the banana tree is seen as holding ritual significance, as it is believed that the umbilical cords of certain children are buried near banana fields. Rice grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom belongs to the genus Oryza and Ozyresatira species. Its various types include IR5, L9, and IRON 282. It

9840-485: The case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it." Since the 1960s, the cohabitation between the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of

9963-495: The colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. The Bembe and Buyu were both grouped in

10086-531: The colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship over Ruanda-Urundi , officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated to Itombwe and Uvira during this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceived superiority over the Hutus. Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group,

10209-421: The conventional understanding of masculinity and victimization can arise both with regard to the attack itself and when coping with the consequences of such crimes. Because of under- and non-reporting on sexual violence against men, the little evidence that exists tends to be anecdotal. In the case that sexual violence against males is recognized and reported, it is often categorized as "abuse" or "torture". This

10332-437: The country. More than 90% of the population makes its livelihood by producing food crops or through industrial work involving the processing of crops. Principal food crops include cassava , corn , rice , plantains , and, to a lesser extent, bananas , beans , and peanuts . According to Bafuliru folklore, cassava originated from Lwindi Chiefdom and was introduced by them during their migration. Today, cassava remains

10455-716: The ethnic group. The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans: The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region of Africa , is complex and multifaceted, shaped by migration , colonization , and conflict . The Fuliru are believed to have originated from the Bantu-speaking people who migrated from West - Central Africa as part of the Bantu migration to Central , Eastern and Southern Africa . Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after

10578-466: The factors increasing the risk of a man committing rape are those related to attitudes and beliefs, as well as behavior arising from situations and social conditions that provide opportunities and support for abuse. "Sexual and gender-based violence destroys people, it destroys local communities and it is extremely difficult to mend the damage. That's why we have to do more to prevent it." — Norwegian Foreign Minister Ine Eriksen Soreide Sexual violence

10701-442: The following villages: The Itara-Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages: The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages: Alternatively, Bafuliru are not a homogeneous people; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be considered Mufuliru one must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of

10824-427: The governance of the community, serving as a source of tax revenue . Eighty percent of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. This tax collection method enables tax collectors to fill the state treasury at both community and zone levels, which, in turn, supports the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. The banana plant is an adaptable crop that thrives in nearly every region of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It has

10947-399: The great majority of victims of sexual violence and live with the possibility of falling victim in common life situations. For instance, a 1987 study concluded that college women reported being the victims of unwanted sex that was the result of men using verbal coercion and physical force to manipulate them into it, and alcohol or drugs to intoxicate them into it. Sexual violence is one of

11070-530: The guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye. During the period of European penetration , the Banyarwanda , now commonly referred to as " Banyamulenge ", emerged as a significant group in the region. The term "Banyarwanda" includes Hutus , Tutsis , and Twa people from Rwanda, who share the same common language and cultural heritage . In traditional Rwandan society,

11193-400: The immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promote economic development and expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the region. Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans

11316-515: The initial expansion from Nigeria / Cameroon and settled in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surrounding Lake Tanganyika , specifically in the mountainous hinterland of South Kivu along the Ulindi River . The Fuliru have a unique history as one of

11439-439: The issue is imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement against it. Domestic sexual violence is distinguished from conflict-related sexual violence . Often, people who coerce their spouses into sexual acts believe their actions are legitimate because they are married. In times of conflict, sexual violence tends to be an inevitable repercussion of warfare trapped in an ongoing cycle of impunity. Rape of women and of men

11562-626: The land from Moira to the Munyovwe River; his second son, Mutahonga, received areas from the Munyovwe to the Kise River and the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and his third son, Lusagara, managed the mountainous regions. This arrangement retained centralized control through family ties, with power transferring from father to eldest son. Eventually, some members of the Bafuliru's Balunga clan joined

11685-487: The letter, he stated: "With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in alphabetical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of "tribe" that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in

11808-687: The local population's modest consumption of these foods as dietary staples. Traditionally, a bean dish is served with cassava mbundu . Corn is a widely grown crop in the Ruzizi Plain, particularly in the Itara-Luvungi groupement , and in the Hauts Plateaux , where it acts as the primary food source. Although many Bafuliru from the Hauts Plateaux consume corn, some don't favor corn. Peanuts are mainly grown in Luvungi and Lubarika , though they are also present in Lemera and Rubanga. Peanuts are

11931-548: The massacres against Rwandan refugees and Zairian civilians during the First and Second Congo Wars , several articles and international academic research have been devoted to the mass violence against Rwandan refugees and Congolese civilians. These scholarly research and data led the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights to write and publish a report entitled " Mapping Report " on the "most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within

12054-418: The most common and widespread violations that men subject women to during wartime. It also figures among the most traumatic experiences, both emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during conflict. Sexual violence, in particular rape, is often considered as a method of warfare: it is used not only to "torture, injure, extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or simply destroy," but also as

12177-540: The most common diseases like chlamydia , gonorrhea , trichomoniasis and bacterial vaginosis ) and a blood serum is collected to test for STIs (such as HIV , hepatitis B and syphilis ). Any survivor with abrasions are immunized for tetanus if five years have elapsed since the last immunization. Short-term treatment with a benzodiazepine may help with acute anxiety and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of PTSD , depression and panic attacks. Sexual violence survivors who have lasting psychological symptoms as

12300-436: The mouth and penis, vulva or anus, or acts that do not involve physical contact between the victim and the perpetrator—for example, sexual harassment, threats, and peeping. Coercion, with regard to sexual violence, can cover a whole spectrum of degrees of force. Apart from physical force, it may involve psychological intimidation , blackmail or other threats – for instance, the threat of physical harm, of being dismissed from

12423-562: The northwest. They also form the primary constituency in the Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom, to the northeast, near the Rwanda and Burundi borders, where some Fuliru communities reside. According to a 2009 census, their population was estimated at over 250,000, while a 1999 estimate of Kifuliru -language speakers placed the number at 300,000. The Fuliru speak the Fuliru language , a branch of

12546-473: The only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized. According to oral tradition , the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of the Ulindi River . The Mushi historian Bishikwabo Chubaka has chronicled that after migrating from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterlands,

12669-401: The paramount chief. Groupements are subdivided in localités (villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. Bafuliru Chiefdom is composed of five groupements : Runingu , Itara-Luvungi , Lemera , Muhungu and Kigoma. The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages: The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages: The Runingu groupement consists of

12792-487: The period between 1914 and 1927. This union merged two distinct groups, with Kalunga's lineage recognized to preserve social cohesion , mutual trust, and integration within the Bafuliru. Over time, the Bazige adopted the Kifuliiru language , strengthened by intermarriage and economic exchanges, and ultimately accepted Mukogabwe as their Mwami. The formal establishment of the Bafuliru Chiefdom came on 18 August 1928, when it

12915-532: The physical pain caused, sexual violence against men can also exploit local ideas of gender and sexuality to cause tremendous mental and psychological anguish for survivors that can last for years following the attack. Male-directed sexual violence is more significant than is often thought. The scope of such crimes continues, however, to be unknown largely because of poor or a lack of documentation. The under- or non-reporting of sexual violence against males may often be due to fear, confusion, guilt, shame and stigma, or

13038-467: The position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Each ethnic group , however small, was assigned a chiefdom or a sector , if not, a grouping (groupement) . The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation that Orientale Province , which included

13161-442: The present-day Haut-Congo Province and the former Kivu , comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle of indirect rule , which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to

13284-465: The present-day Uvira Territory . Depelchin also observes that both "Buvira" (today's Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) had multiple bami (a term equivalent to " mwami " among many eastern Congolese Bantu groups). He firmly states that this part of the country (encompassing Bavira and Bafuliru chiefdoms) has never had one paramount chief, as the Bafuliru retained their own independent paramount chief. By 1907, colonial surveys delineated

13407-402: The prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. At the onset of Belgian colonization , the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method of governance , reflecting the decentralized nature of the colonial policy. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by

13530-446: The prevalence of domestic sexual violence ranged, on average, between 10% and 40%. Domestic sexual violence is also considerably less common than other forms of domestic violence. The variations in the findings across and within countries suggest that this type of abuse is not inevitable and can be prevented. Sexual violence against women and girls can take many forms and is carried out in different situations and contexts. Women comprise

13653-931: The prevalence of sexual violence and studying trends over time. In addition, a consistent definition helps in determining the magnitude of sexual violence and aids in comparing the problem across demographics. Consistency allows researchers to measure risk and protective factors for victimization in a uniform manner. This ultimately informs prevention and intervention efforts. A distinction is made between conflict-related sexual violence and domestic sexual violence: All people can fall victim to sexual violence. This includes women, men, children, and people who define themselves in other terms, e.g., transgender or non-binary individuals. Most research, reports and studies focus on sexual violence perpetrated against women and in armed conflicts. The majority of victims are women, but men and children are also victims of sexual violence. The crime may be committed in peacetime or during conflict. It

13776-541: The region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation of mineral resources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many families displaced from their homes, and their livelihoods destroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated

13899-571: The same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their "Mwami" and their "Balu" or "Vakama", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For

14022-439: The social conditions that contributed to their violation, recover self-confidence, and facilitate peer support, however survivors have also identified burn out to be prevalent in activist work. The number of initiatives addressing sexual violence is limited and few have been evaluated. The approaches vary with most interventions being developed and implemented in industrialized countries. How relevant they may be in other settings

14145-435: The social environment including peers and family influencing the likelihood of rape and the reaction to it. Research suggests that the various factors have an additive effect , so that the more factors present, the greater the likelihood of sexual violence. In addition, a particular factor may vary in importance according to the life stage. Some 70% of people who experienced sexual violence were paralyzed before and during

14268-492: The territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003". Furiiru people The Fuliru people (also spelled Fuliiru ) are a Bantu ethnic group native to the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . They predominantly inhabit the Uvira Territory , forming the largest ethnic group within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom , located centrally and to

14391-669: The victim provoked sexual violence lead to a lack of disclosure of sexual assault which is associated with even more severe psychological consequences, particularly in children. Thus, more interventions are needed in order to order to change societal attitudes towards sexual violence as well as efforts designed to educate those to whom the survivors may disclose the assault. In the emergency room , emergency contraceptive medications are offered to women raped by men because about 5% of such rapes result in pregnancy. Preventative medication against sexually transmitted infections are given to victims of all types of sexual assault (especially for

14514-405: The victim. Sexual violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings, oftentimes dismissed as a women's issue , thus levels of disclosure of the assault vary between regions. In general, it is a widely underreported phenomenon, thus available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected area of research, thus deeper understanding of

14637-444: The workplace, in prisons and police custody, and during war and in the military. The practice of sexually assaulting males is not confined to any geographical area of the world or its place of commission, and occurs irrespective of the victim's age. The various forms of sexual violence directed against males include rape, enforced sterilization, enforced masturbation, and genital violence (including genital mutilation ). In addition to

14760-576: Was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerous laborers brought by missionaries from neighboring Rwanda. Monsignor Faustin Ngabu , who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of the Diocese of Goma , acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of 11 April 1998 (French: Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998 ). In

14883-404: Was recognized by the colonial authorities. Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian, notes that Chief Matakambo, identified as the son of Mahina Mukogabwe, grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. Later, on 4 March 1940, Nyamugira, another of Mahina's descendants, was also made chief, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. There

15006-610: Was the king, known as the " Mwami ", who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. The Belgian colonial administration formalized and solidified this social system , ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis. Between 1935 and 1955,

15129-590: Was the recruitment of labor . Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for large mining companies such as the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga and Kivu , particularly in Kalima and Kamituga . Many of these workers were Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce their nationality or property , which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans

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