67-545: Field Marshal John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier , KB , PC (born Jean Louis de Ligonnier ; 7 November 1680 – 28 April 1770), styled Sir John Ligonier from 1743 to 1757, was a French-born British soldier and politician who fought for the English and British armies for more than half a century. In 1757, he was appointed Commander-in-chief and raised to the peerage as Viscount Ligonier in 1757, and in 1766 further elevated as Earl Ligonier . Ligonier
134-715: A Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen in June 1743. At Fontenoy in May 1745, Ligonier commanded the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian infantry. During the Jacobite rising of 1745 he was called home to command the British army in the Midlands . In November 1745 he led a column of troops sent to Lancashire to oppose the rebels. Having been promoted to the rank of general of horse on 3 January 1746, he
201-614: A captain in the 10th Foot on 10 February 1703, he commanded a company at the battles of Schellenberg in July 1704 and Blenheim in August 1704, and was present at Menen where he led the storming of the covered way as well as Ramillies in May 1706, Oudenarde in July 1708 and Malplaquet in September 1709 where he received twenty-three bullets through his clothing yet remained unhurt. In 1712, he became governor of Fort St. Philip, Menorca . During
268-496: A planned French invasion in 1759 though it never ultimately occurred. He stood down as commander-in-chief in 1759 and became Master-General of the Ordnance . He was given a further Irish peerage on 1 May 1762 as Viscount Ligonier of Clonmell (with remainder to his nephew) and on 19 April 1763 he became a Baron, and on 6 September 1766 an Earl, in the British peerage. Fort Ligonier , commanded by Lord Ligonier from 1758 to 1766, became
335-491: A counterattack, a decision later criticised. Suggestions the Dutch action was only intended as a demonstration appear unlikely. Marlborough blamed himself for not monitoring it more closely, and took full responsibility for the failure. Meanwhile, pressure from Prince Eugene forced Villars to keep moving troops from the centre to prevent the collapse of his left wing. Withers and the detachment from Tournai arrived too late to support
402-564: A gold-tipped baton which they may carry on formal occasions. The vast majority of officers to hold the rank of field marshal were professional soldiers in the British Army, though eleven served as officers in the British Indian Army . At least fifty-seven field marshals were wounded in battle earlier in their careers, of whom 24 were wounded more than once, and eight had been prisoners of war. Fifteen future field marshals were present at
469-721: A landslide victory for the Tories in the October 1710 British general election , although they confirmed their commitment to the war to prevent a credit crisis. Despite success in France, British opposition to continuing the war was strengthened by further defeats at Brihuega and Villaviciosa in December 1710 which confirmed Philip V as king of Spain, ostensibly the original cause of the war. The Dutch blamed their losses on Marlborough's tactics, Withers for allegedly failing to support their attack, and
536-480: A tactic he often adopted to keep opponents off balance. The French army consisted of 80 guns and between 75,000 and 80,000 men, including significant numbers of Bavarian and Swiss mercenaries , as well as the Irish Brigade . Villars himself commanded the left, de la Colonie led the centre, with the right, where Villars had placed the bulk of the infantry, led by 67-year-old Marshal Louis-François de Boufflers , who
603-507: A victory that would effectively end the war. At the same time, while conscious of the implications of defeat, Villars informed Louis XIV he must fight, or his army would dissolve. The Allies delayed their attack pending the arrival of 1,900 men from Tournai under Henry Withers , a decision criticised then and later, one analyst arguing "the battle should have taken place on 10 September, or not at all". This gave Villars an extra day to construct defensive positions, including earthworks covering
670-480: Is primarily psychological. He argues 18th century authors viewed it as the point when the French army regained its confidence, while for those writing after the 1870 Franco-Prussian War , it provided proof of French resilience and ability to recover from catastrophic defeat. A total of fourteen battalions of Swiss mercenaries fought in the battle, six with the French, including two of Swiss Guards , and another eight with
737-683: The 2nd Dragoon Guards in 1749. From 1748 to 1770 he was governor of the French Hospital . On 6 April 1750 he was appointed Governor of Guernsey and on 3 February 1753 he became colonel of the Royal Horse Guards . In September 1757, following the disgrace of the Duke of Cumberland who had signed the Convention of Klosterzeven , Ligonier was made Commander-in-Chief of the Forces . He worked closely with
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#1732876598464804-669: The Austrian Succession . During the Seven Years' War , he also served as Master-General of the Ordnance , effectively acting as Minister of War for the Pitt–Newcastle ministry . He retired from active duty in 1763 and died at his home in London on 28 April 1770. He sat in the House of Commons for Bath from 1748 to 1763 and served as Governor of Guernsey from 1750 to 1752. John Ligonier
871-653: The Battle of Vitoria , where the Duke of Wellington earned the rank, and ten others served under Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo . However, only thirty-eight held independent commands in the field, and just twelve served as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces (the pre-1904 professional head of the army) or Chief of the Imperial General Staff during a major war. Four field marshals ( Sir Evelyn Wood , Sir George White , Earl Roberts , and Lord Gort ) had previously received
938-540: The British Armed Forces , were usually promoted to the rank upon their appointment. In total, 141 men have held the rank of field marshal. The majority led careers in the British Army or the colonial British Indian Army , rising through the ranks to eventually become a field marshal. Some members of the British Royal Family , most recently Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Charles III , were promoted to
1005-527: The British Armed Forces . At the same time, Guthrie, who relinquished the post of CDS and retired from active service in 2001, was promoted to honorary field marshal. In June 2014, former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Walker of Aldringham was also promoted to honorary field marshal. Although the rank of field marshal is not used in the Royal Marines , the insignia is used on the uniform of
1072-568: The Captain General , the ceremonial head of the corps (equivalent to colonel-in-chief ). The rank insignia of a field marshal in the British Army comprises two crossed batons in a wreath of laurel leaves, with a crown above. In some other countries, historically under the sphere of British influence, an adapted version of the insignia is used for field marshals, often with the crown being replaced with an alternative cultural or national emblem. On appointment, British field marshals are awarded
1139-592: The Duke of Villars , engaged a Grand Alliance force of 86,000 under the Duke of Marlborough . In one of the bloodiest battles of the 18th century, the Allies won a narrow victory, but suffered heavy casualties. Allied advances in 1708 led to the renewal of peace talks, which collapsed in April 1709. After taking Tournai in early September, the Allies besieged Mons , whose capture would allow them to enter France itself, and Louis XIV ordered Villars to prevent its loss. Although
1206-656: The Grenadier Guards , commanded a series of attacks while severely wounded during the First World War in 1918. Roberts received his VC for actions during the Indian Mutiny . Wellington, 44 at the time of his promotion, was the youngest non-royal officer to earn the rank of field marshal. Charles Moore, 1st Marquess of Drogheda was the oldest, promoted at the age of 91, while a further twenty-three officers were promoted to field marshal in their eighties. Wellington
1273-573: The Ministry of Defence in 1995 made a number of recommendations for financial savings in the armed forces' budget, one of which was the abolition of all five-star ranks. Part of the rationale was that these ranks were disproportionate to the size of the forces commanded by these officers, and that none of the United Kingdom's close allies, such as the United States (which reserves the rank of general of
1340-408: The Pitt–Newcastle ministry who sought his strategic advice in connection with the Seven Years' War which was underway at this time. Ligonier was also made a field marshal on 3 December 1757, Colonel of the 1st Foot Guards on the same date and a peer of Ireland on 10 December 1757 under the title of Viscount Ligonier of Enniskillen. He was notionally given command of British forces in the event of
1407-625: The Victoria Cross (VC), the United Kingdom's highest and most prestigious award for gallantry 'in the face of the enemy'. Wood, a famously injury-prone officer, was awarded the VC for two actions in 1858, in which he first attacked a group of rebels in India, and later rescued an informant from another group of rebels. White, a cavalry officer , led two charges on enemy guns in Afghanistan in 1879, while Gort, of
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#17328765984641474-703: The War of the Quadruple Alliance in 1719 he was adjutant-general of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition , where he led the stormers of Pontevedra . Two years later, he became colonel of the Black Horse . He was made a brigadier general in 1735, major general in 1739, and accompanied Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742 to 1743. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 26 February 1742 and George II made him
1541-504: The 1709 campaign, Marlborough himself felt Whig demands of " No Peace Without Spain " were excessive. In that respect, Malplaquet had less impact on British policy than Spanish successes the same year at Alicante and La Gudina , which made prospects of victory there increasingly remote. Before peace talks resumed in 1710, Marlborough wrote to the Allied negotiators that "thanks to our victory..., you may have what peace you want". This view
1608-465: The Allied cavalry back, before the French in turn were repulsed by Orkney's infantry. The Allies advanced once again, and engaged the French in what was the largest cavalry action of the 18th century. As this unfolded, the French left finally started to crumble under pressure from Withers and Schulenburg. Puységur now ordered his troops to withdraw, while the Prince of Orange led another mass assault against
1675-474: The Dutch incurred over 5,000 casualties capturing Blairon Farm, including many senior officers. Despite these losses, the Prince of Orange continued his attacks until Marlborough ordered him to stop. Covered by their cavalry, the Dutch withdrew to their original positions, while Orkney later wrote their dead lay "as thick as ever you saw a flock of sheep." Boufflers, in command of the French right, had over 60 battalions at his disposal, but made no attempt to launch
1742-511: The Dutch infantry. Other estimates range from a low of 15,000 to a high of 30,000. There is less consensus on French losses, which are generally put at between 11,000 and 14,000, Other estimates suggest a low of 7,000, to a high of 17,000 killed or wounded, plus 500 prisoners. The Allies also captured 16 French artillery pieces. Although horrified by the casualties, contemporaries viewed Malplaquet as an Allied victory, and most modern historians concur. The French commanders focused on
1809-429: The Dutch opposed his preferred option of Ypres , he agreed to make Tournai the main objective for 1709. Although persistent heavy rain caused further delays, the siege of Tournai commenced on 15 June; one of the strongest fortresses in France and held by a garrison of 7,700, it surrendered on 3 September and Marlborough immediately marched on Mons . Having assumed Tournai would hold out until October and thus consume
1876-473: The Dutch, and were instructed instead to make a flanking move north of the French lines in Sars Wood. This manoeuvre took over two hours to complete, by which time the fighting had largely ended, but their approach forced Villars to reinforce his left with another twelve battalions. By midday, this left nine French battalions and sixty cavalry squadrons in the centre, facing twenty-three and eighty respectively. In
1943-468: The Dutch. More than 8,000 of these became casualties, while Malplaquet was the last action where Swiss mercenaries directly engaged one another until Bailén in 1808. Written many years later, a firsthand account of the battle is given in the book Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Peter Drake (1671–1753) . An Irishman who served in various European armies, Drake fought with the Maison du Roi at Malplaquet and
2010-559: The First World War, while one, Sir William Robertson , held every rank in the British Army, from private soldier to field marshal. Footnotes Works cited Battle of Malplaquet The Battle of Malplaquet took place on 11 September 1709 during the War of the Spanish Succession , near Taisnières-sur-Hon in modern France , then part of the Spanish Netherlands . A French army of around 75,000 men, commanded by
2077-463: The French right. The Dutch infantry made some progress but were repulsed once again, before Grovestins' cavalry approached the French rear, forcing them to finally abandon their entrenchments. At 15:00 Boufflers ordered a general retreat towards Le Quesnoy , some 25 kilometres (16 mi) away, with the Allies too exhausted to pursue. Most commentators put Allied casualties between 21,000 and 25,000 killed or wounded, 8,462 of which were incurred by
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2144-686: The Grand Alliance over the wisdom of continuing the war. By saving his army, Villars ultimately enabled Louis to negotiate far better peace terms in 1713 than those available in 1709. However, it did little to change the immediate strategic situation; Mons surrendered shortly afterward and the Allies resumed their advance in 1710. By early 1709, the French state was bankrupt, while the severe winter of 1708–1709 caused widespread famine; garrisons at Tournai , Arras , St Omer , Valenciennes and Cambrai all mutinied over lack of food and pay. Desperate to end
2211-435: The Prince of Orange for continuing when it became clear the French positions were too strong. Although Grand Pensionary Anthonie Heinsius and several Dutch regenten felt the casualties justified more stringent peace terms, others considered this unrealistic. Sicco van Goslinga, a Dutch field deputy attached to Marlborough's staff, argued such casualties were to be expected, given they had taken Tournai and Mons, "two of
2278-520: The army for officers who have commanded large armies in major wars), used such ranks. The recommendation was not taken up in full, but the practice of promoting service chiefs to five-star ranks was stopped, and the ranks are now reserved for special circumstances. Sir Peter Inge was, in 1994, the last active officer to be promoted to the rank. Inge relinquished the post of Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) in 1997, and his successor, Sir Charles Guthrie ,
2345-675: The bulk of the 30,000 cavalry to their rear. Finally, the Allied left was held by the Dutch, with 18,000 infantry under the Prince of Orange , plus 10,000 cavalry under the Prince of Hesse-Kassel . Overall control was exercised by Count Tilly , who had succeeded Lord Overkirk as senior Dutch commander. At 07:00 on 11 September, the Allies opened the battle with an artillery bombardment. This ended at 08:30, when their right wing assaulted French troops based in Sars Wood, led by Count Finckenstein , Lottum and Schulenburg . Three hours of close combat ensued, both sides taking heavy losses; Prince Eugene
2412-493: The casualties incurred, the French view it differently. At the beginning of the war, their army was considered the best in Europe, a reputation shattered by a series of defeats between 1704 and 1708. Despite being a narrow defeat which did little to change the immediate strategic situation, Malplaquet is seen as more important than victory at Denain in 1712. Historian André Corvisier suggests its significance in French military history
2479-479: The defeated. In contrast, at Malplaquet the French held strong defensive positions, were better led, and highly motivated. Villars had also learned from Ramillies, where Villeroy arguably contributed to his own defeat by over-extending his line. He was helped by the fact that the battlefield at Malplaquet was much more restricted, allowing him to concentrate his infantry in defensive positions. It also prevented Marlborough from quickly shifting troops between wings,
2546-443: The early afternoon, Villars was badly wounded, and transferred overall command to Boufflers, with Puységur taking over the left. Despite their losses, the Dutch assaults prevented the French right reinforcing their centre. This was now over-run by Orkney's infantry, while the Dutch cavalry under Grovestins broke into their rear, before being attacked by the elite Maison du Roi cavalry under Boufflers. Superior numbers forced
2613-461: The end of April. When the 1709 campaign began, Louis ordered Villars to avoid battle and to prevent any further deterioration in the French position. Ordinarily an extremely aggressive general, Villars instead built defensive lines along the River Scarpe , running from Saint-Venant to Douai . For their part, the Allies were convinced France was on the verge of collapse, and looked to keep up
2680-527: The entire 1709 campaign season, Louis now ordered Villars to prevent the loss of Mons "at all costs...the salvation of France is at stake". The main Allied army arrived east of the town on 7 September, awaiting the arrival of their siege artillery from Tournai; Villars took up positions to the southwest on the 9th, leaving the two forces facing each other across the gap of Malplaquet . Knowing Villars had been instructed to fight for Mons, Marlborough and his deputy Prince Eugene of Savoy were confident of winning
2747-669: The first of Louis' three younger sons who left for England, where they altered the name to Ligonier. His younger brother Antoine de Ligonnier followed in 1698. He served in several of the Duke of Marlborough 's campaigns during the War of the Spanish Succession and died unmarried in 1767, with the rank of major. His youngest brother François-Auguste de Ligonnier emigrated in 1710. Their eldest brother, Abel de Ligonnier (1669-1769), inherited his father's estates and stayed in Castres. He married Louise de Boileau, daughter of Jacques de Boileau de Castelnau, sister of Huguenot refugee Charles Boileau,
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2814-409: The flank attacks incurred heavy casualties, while the French cavalry ensured their centre did not collapse. This allowed their infantry to retreat in good order, with the Allies too exhausted to conduct a pursuit. Most historians estimate Allied losses as about 22,000 killed or wounded, those of the French being around 11,000. These levels shocked contemporaries, and heightened internal divisions within
2881-914: The highest rank in the British Army since 1736. A five-star rank with NATO code OF-10 , it is equivalent to an Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal Navy or a Marshal of the Royal Air Force in the Royal Air Force (RAF). A Field Marshal's insignia consists of two crossed batons surrounded by yellow leaves below the Tudor Crown . Like Marshals of the Royal Air Force and Admirals of the Fleet, Field Marshals traditionally remain officers for life, though on half-pay when not in an appointment or retired. The rank has been used sporadically throughout its history, and
2948-548: The honour, though three ( Wilhelm II , German Emperor; Franz Joseph I , Emperor of Austria-Hungary; and Hirohito , Emperor of Japan) were stripped of it when their countries became enemies of Britain and its allies in the two world wars. Also awarded the rank were one Frenchman ( Ferdinand Foch ) and one Australian ( Sir Thomas Blamey ), honoured for their contributions in World War I and World War II respectively, and one South African statesman ( Jan Smuts ). A report commissioned by
3015-554: The last significant French field army in another battle. As a result, the immediate impact of Malplaquet was political rather than military. When peace negotiations resumed in March 1710 at Geertruidenberg, it was clear the mood in Britain had changed. Although British losses were comparatively low, Marlborough's domestic opponents used the heavy casualties to attack him. Reluctance to continue fighting for what seemed marginal gains resulted in
3082-553: The last significant obstacles to the Allied advance, the new British government had already secretly negotiated peace terms with Louis XIV, signing the Preliminary Articles of London on 8 October 1711. At the end of 1711, Marlborough was replaced by the Tory Duke of Ormonde , who was ordered to prevent any further offensive action by British troops. While the battle is now chiefly remembered by British and Dutch commentators for
3149-401: The losses they had inflicted, Boufflers reporting to Louis XIV "...misfortune compels me to announce the loss of another battle, but I can assure your Majesty misfortune has never been accompanied by greater glory". In a similar vein, Villars later wrote: "If God grants us the grace to lose such a battle again, Your Majesty can count on all of his enemies being destroyed". The Prince of Orange
3216-477: The open ground in the centre, and additional entrenchments extending into the woods on either side. Marlborough's plan was the same as he had successfully employed at Blenheim , Ramillies and Oudenarde . On each occasion, frontal assaults on the French flanks forced them to move troops from the centre, which was then broken by mass cavalry attacks. Although the leading units took heavy casualties, overall Allied losses were substantially less than those suffered by
3283-507: The permanent settlement of Ligonier, Pennsylvania and lent its name to Ligonier Valley and Ligonier Valley Railroad . After extensive excavations, Fort Ligonier was reconstructed in 1954 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places . Ligonier spent his later years at Cobham Park in Cobham, Surrey , which he bought around 1750. He died, still unmarried, on 28 April 1770 and
3350-524: The pressure by advancing through the line of border fortresses known as the Frontière de fer . While French strategy was always ultimately determined by Louis XIV, that of the Allies had to be approved separately by the British , Dutch and Austrian governments, which often required compromise. Marlborough , the Allied commander, considered the positions held by Villars too strong for a frontal assault, and since
3417-504: The progenitor of the Boileau family in Britain, many of whom served in the British Army. Abel was recorded living in France as late as 1769. In 1702, Ligonier volunteered to join a regiment in Flanders commanded by Lord Cutts . He fought, with distinction, in the War of the Spanish Succession and was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liège in October 1702. After becoming
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#17328765984643484-458: The rank after shorter periods of service. Three British monarchs ( George V , Edward VIII , and George VI ) assumed the rank on their accessions to the throne, while Edward VII and Charles III were already field marshals, and two British consorts, Albert, Prince Consort and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , were appointed by their respective queens. Other ceremonial appointments were made as diplomatic gestures. Twelve foreign monarchs have held
3551-555: The strongest fortresses in Europe", and won "one of the hardest battles ever fought". In April 1711, the Habsburg candidate for the Spanish throne, Archduke Charles, succeeded his brother Joseph as Holy Roman Emperor . Since the British and Dutch viewed a union of Spain with Austria as unwelcome as one with France, this effectively undermined a key reason for continuing the war. While the capture of Bouchain in September 1711 removed one of
3618-452: The two armies made contact on 10 September, the attack was delayed until the next day, giving Villars time to construct strong defensive positions. After an opening artillery barrage, the Allied infantry made simultaneous assaults on the French flanks. These were intended to divert troops from their centre, weakening it sufficiently so it could then be broken by a mass Allied cavalry charge. Although successful in previous battles, at Malplaquet
3685-556: The war, Louis XIV initiated peace talks with the Grand Alliance in The Hague . He accepted most of their terms, including replacing his grandson Philip V of Spain with the Habsburg candidate Archduke Charles , the principle for which they were ostensibly fighting. However, he and his ministers could not agree to the demand French troops be used to remove Philip, and talks broke down at
3752-579: Was a Huguenot refugee who fled his native Castres for England in 1697, following the 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau , which stripped the rights of French Protestants to practice their religion. He joined the British Army in 1702 as a volunteer, and for the next six decades was dedicated to the British cause. He fought in the European wars of the Spanish Succession , of the Quadruple Alliance , and of
3819-445: Was also the only field marshal to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . No officer whose career was spent in the British Army has ever reached the rank of field marshal without having served in the cavalry , infantry , Royal Armoured Corps , Royal Artillery , or Royal Engineers . One non-British officer has been appointed field marshal in the British Army; Ferdinand Foch of France, in recognition of his contributions in
3886-508: Was born Jean-Louis de Ligonnier in Castres , Languedoc , the second son of Louis de Ligonnier, sieur de Montcuquet , and Louise de Ligonnier, daughter of Louis du Poncet. His parents were married 28 March 1677 at Roquecourbe . His grandfather built the family's hôtel particulier , Hôtel Poncet [ fr ] , in Castres. Louis de Ligonnier died around 1690. John, a Huguenot , was educated in France and Switzerland . In 1697, he became
3953-626: Was buried in Cobham Church. There is a monument to him, sculpted by John Francis Moore in Westminster Abbey . The earldom became extinct but the Irish viscountcy and Cobham Park passed to his nephew Edward (son of his younger brother Francis ), who would also be created Earl Ligonier in the Peerage of Ireland six years later. Field marshal (United Kingdom) Field marshal ( FM ) has been
4020-456: Was killed and he was taken prisoner by Louis XV , but was exchanged within a few days. The official despatch reported: it is impossible to commend too much the conduct of the generals both horse and foot. Sir John Legonier, who charged at the head of the British dragoons with that skill and spirit that he has shown on so many occasions, and in which he was so well seconded... He became Member of Parliament for Bath in March 1748 and colonel of
4087-417: Was left to oversee the siege of Mons, which surrendered on 21 October. Despite this loss, in the long term Malplaquet arguably allowed Louis to negotiate far better terms at Utrecht in 1713 than those available in 1709. When negotiations resumed in March 1710, the French strategic position was largely unchanged, but Maplaquet accentuated Allied divisions over war aims and their associated cost. Even before
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#17328765984644154-495: Was placed at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army in the Low Countries in June 1746. He was present at Rocoux in October 1746 and, having been made Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance on 19 March 1747, he fought at Lauffeld in July 1747, where he led the charge of the British cavalry. He did this with such vigour that he overthrew the whole line of French cavalry. In this encounter his horse
4221-426: Was senior to Villars in rank but volunteered to serve under him. The infantry held a continuous line of entrenchments supported by artillery, with the cavalry massed in the rear. Facing them was an Allied force of roughly 86,000 men and 100 guns, with the right wing formed of 30,000 German and Danish infantry led by Prince Eugene. The Earl of Orkney commanded the Allied centre, with 8,000 mostly British infantry, and
4288-533: Was slightly wounded, but refused to leave the field. At around 09:00, the Dutch, commanded by François Nicolas Fagel , moved against the French right with 13 battalions, including Swiss mercenaries and the Scots Brigade . After initial success, they were repulsed, and the Prince of Orange and Sicco van Goslinga then ordered another 17 battalions to support Fagel by attacking French positions around Blairon Farm. A frontal assault on strongly entrenched troops meant
4355-470: Was the first officer not to be promoted upon appointment as CDS, although he was promoted to the honorary rank of field marshal in June 2012. The most recent promotions to field marshal came in 2012, eighteen years after the moratorium on routine promotions to the rank, when Queen Elizabeth II promoted Prince Charles, her son and heir apparent, to the five-star ranks in all three services, in recognition of support provided for her in her capacity as Head of
4422-458: Was used on the loss of Mons, which exposed the French interior, while the losses incurred at Malplaquet meant they could only act on the defensive. In spring 1710, the Allies resumed their advance almost unopposed; by September they had broken through the secondary line of the "Pré carré", capturing Douai, Béthune , Aire and Saint-Venant. Short of supplies, and with many regiments reduced to less than half their official size, Villars could not risk
4489-399: Was vacant during parts of the 18th and 19th centuries (when all former holders of the rank were deceased). After the Second World War, it became standard practice to appoint the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (later renamed Chief of the General Staff ) to the rank on his last day in the post. Army officers occupying the post of Chief of the Defence Staff , the professional head of all
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