1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias
109-481: Looloo was a review and place discovery social networking application for iOS and mobile site based in the Philippines . Launched on November 21, 2012, its primary function was to allow users to explore and discover restaurants, bars, hotels, salons, spas, and other places of interest through crowd-sourced reviews layered with the social dimension of being able to follow, recommend, and credit other users. looloo
218-490: A common good . Social capital is split into three dimensions: the structural, the relational and the cognitive dimension. The structural dimension describes how partners interact with each other and which specific partners meet in a social network. Also, the structural dimension of social capital indicates the level of ties among organizations. This dimension is highly connected to the relational dimension which refers to trustworthiness, norms, expectations and identifications of
327-408: A population size that falls between the micro- and macro-levels. However, meso-level may also refer to analyses that are specifically designed to reveal connections between micro- and macro-levels. Meso-level networks are low density and may exhibit causal processes distinct from interpersonal micro-level networks. Organizations : Formal organizations are social groups that distribute tasks for
436-416: A power law . The Barabási model of network evolution shown above is an example of a scale-free network. Rather than tracing interpersonal interactions, macro-level analyses generally trace the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or other resource transfer interactions over a large population . Large-scale networks : Large-scale network is a term somewhat synonymous with "macro-level." It
545-423: A "broker" of information between two clusters that otherwise would not have been in contact, thus providing access to new ideas, opinions and opportunities. British philosopher and political economist John Stuart Mill , writes, "it is hardly possible to overrate the value of placing human beings in contact with persons dissimilar to themselves.... Such communication [is] one of the primary sources of progress." Thus,
654-533: A broad range of contacts is most effective for job attainment. Structural holes have been widely applied in social network analysis, resulting in applications in a wide range of practical scenarios as well as machine learning-based social prediction. Research has used network analysis to examine networks created when artists are exhibited together in museum exhibition. Such networks have been shown to affect an artist's recognition in history and historical narratives, even when controlling for individual accomplishments of
763-542: A change in one of the relations. The dynamics of social friendships in society has been modeled by balancing triads. The study is carried forward with the theory of signed graphs . Actor level : The smallest unit of analysis in a social network is an individual in their social setting, i.e., an "actor" or "ego." Egonetwork analysis focuses on network characteristics, such as size, relationship strength, density, centrality , prestige and roles such as isolates, liaisons , and bridges . Such analyses, are most commonly used in
872-408: A collective goal . Network research on organizations may focus on either intra-organizational or inter-organizational ties in terms of formal or informal relationships. Intra-organizational networks themselves often contain multiple levels of analysis, especially in larger organizations with multiple branches, franchises or semi-autonomous departments. In these cases, research is often conducted at
981-400: A dyad, and you have a triad . Research at this level may concentrate on factors such as balance and transitivity , as well as social equality and tendencies toward reciprocity/mutuality . In the balance theory of Fritz Heider the triad is the key to social dynamics. The discord in a rivalrous love triangle is an example of an unbalanced triad, likely to change to a balanced triad by
1090-434: A given network. Homophily : The extent to which actors form ties with similar versus dissimilar others. Similarity can be defined by gender, race, age, occupation, educational achievement, status, values or any other salient characteristic. Homophily is also referred to as assortativity . Multiplexity: The number of content-forms contained in a tie. For example, two people who are friends and also work together would have
1199-455: A globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make up the system. These patterns become more apparent as network size increases. However, a global network analysis of, for example, all interpersonal relationships in the world is not feasible and is likely to contain so much information as to be uninformative. Practical limitations of computing power, ethics and participant recruitment and payment also limit
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#17328844411881308-419: A group of people who are unlikely to change their opinions of the other people in the group. Unbalanced graphs represent a group of people who are very likely to change their opinions of the people in their group. For example, a group of 3 people (A, B, and C) where A and B have a positive relationship, B and C have a positive relationship, but C and A have a negative relationship is an unbalanced cycle. This group
1417-454: A heavy tail in the degree distribution , a high clustering coefficient , assortativity or disassortativity among vertices, community structure (see stochastic block model ), and hierarchical structure . In the case of agency-directed networks these features also include reciprocity , triad significance profile (TSP, see network motif ), and other features. In contrast, many of the mathematical models of networks that have been studied in
1526-627: A means of qualitatively assessing networks by varying the visual representation of their nodes and edges to reflect attributes of interest. Social network analysis has emerged as a key technique in modern sociology . It has also gained significant popularity in the following: anthropology , biology , demography , communication studies , economics , geography , history , information science , organizational studies , physics , political science , public health, social psychology , development studies , sociolinguistics , and computer science , education and distance education research, and
1635-439: A meeting. With the rise of electronic commerce , information exchanged may also correspond to exchanges of money, goods or services in the "real" world. Social network analysis methods have become essential to examining these types of computer mediated communication. In addition, the sheer size and the volatile nature of social media has given rise to new network metrics. A key concern with networks extracted from social media
1744-428: A multiplexity of 2. Multiplexity has been associated with relationship strength and can also comprise overlap of positive and negative network ties. Mutuality/Reciprocity: The extent to which two actors reciprocate each other's friendship or other interaction. Network Closure : A measure of the completeness of relational triads. An individual's assumption of network closure (i.e. that their friends are also friends)
1853-420: A network relative to the total number possible. Distance: The minimum number of ties required to connect two particular actors, as popularized by Stanley Milgram 's small world experiment and the idea of 'six degrees of separation'. Structural holes: The absence of ties between two parts of a network. Finding and exploiting a structural hole can give an entrepreneur a competitive advantage. This concept
1962-425: A network that bridges structural holes will provide network benefits that are in some degree additive, rather than overlapping. An ideal network structure has a vine and cluster structure, providing access to many different clusters and structural holes. Networks rich in structural holes are a form of social capital in that they offer information benefits. The main player in a network that bridges structural holes
2071-586: A network, and the relatively small role played by an instructor in an asynchronous learning network. Although many studies have demonstrated the value of social network analysis within the computer-supported collaborative learning field, researchers have suggested that SNA by itself is not enough for achieving a full understanding of CSCL. The complexity of the interaction processes and the myriad sources of data make it difficult for SNA to provide an in-depth analysis of CSCL. Researchers indicate that SNA needs to be complemented with other methods of analysis to form
2180-431: A new medium for social interaction. A relationship over a computerized social networking service can be characterized by context, direction, and strength. The content of a relation refers to the resource that is exchanged. In a computer-mediated communication context, social pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer program as well as providing emotional support or arranging
2289-477: A non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. Georg Simmel , writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction in loosely knit networks rather than groups. Major developments in
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#17328844411882398-427: A player with a network rich in structural holes can add value to an organization through new ideas and opportunities. This in turn, helps an individual's career development and advancement. A social capital broker also reaps control benefits of being the facilitator of information flow between contacts. Full communication with exploratory mindsets and information exchange generated by dynamically alternating positions in
2507-464: A positive relationship (friendship, alliance, dating) and a negative edge between two nodes denotes a negative relationship (hatred, anger). Signed social network graphs can be used to predict the future evolution of the graph. In signed social networks , there is the concept of "balanced" and "unbalanced" cycles. A balanced cycle is defined as a cycle where the product of all the signs are positive. According to balance theory , balanced graphs represent
2616-442: A scale-free network is the relative commonness of vertices with a degree that greatly exceeds the average. The highest-degree nodes are often called "hubs", and may serve specific purposes in their networks, although this depends greatly on the social context. Another general characteristic of scale-free networks is the clustering coefficient distribution, which decreases as the node degree increases. This distribution also follows
2725-464: A social network promotes creative and deep thinking. In the case of consulting firm Eden McCallum, the founders were able to advance their careers by bridging their connections with former big three consulting firm consultants and mid-size industry firms. By bridging structural holes and mobilizing social capital, players can advance their careers by executing new opportunities between contacts. There has been research that both substantiates and refutes
2834-500: A star rating of 1 to 5 for places they review. The review may or may not contain additional details such as text or a photo as a complement to the star rating given. All reviews submitted are then available for viewing on the looloo mobile site. The app gives the user the ability to share his or her review on Facebook or Twitter as well. With each review, users may also send a direct recommendation to their “looloo friends”—fellow app users they follow and that follow them back. Through
2943-412: A tool to understand behavior between individuals or organizations through their linkages on social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook . One of the most current methods of the application of SNA is to the study of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). When applied to CSCL, SNA is used to help understand how learners collaborate in terms of amount, frequency, and length, as well as
3052-418: A wide range of applications and disciplines. Some common network analysis applications include data aggregation and mining , network propagation modeling, network modeling and sampling, user attribute and behavior analysis, community-maintained resource support, location-based interaction analysis, social sharing and filtering, recommender systems development, and link prediction and entity resolution. In
3161-437: A work group level and organization level, focusing on the interplay between the two structures. Experiments with networked groups online have documented ways to optimize group-level coordination through diverse interventions, including the addition of autonomous agents to the groups. Randomly distributed networks : Exponential random graph models of social networks became state-of-the-art methods of social network analysis in
3270-463: Is a network whose degree distribution follows a power law , at least asymptotically . In network theory a scale-free ideal network is a random network with a degree distribution that unravels the size distribution of social groups. Specific characteristics of scale-free networks vary with the theories and analytical tools used to create them, however, in general, scale-free networks have some common characteristics. One notable characteristic in
3379-596: Is a social structure consisting of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of dyadic ties, and other social interactions between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures. The study of these structures uses social network analysis to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine network dynamics. For instance, social network analysis has been used in studying
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3488-431: Is a network-based sampling technique that relies on respondents to a survey recommending further respondents. The field of sociology focuses almost entirely on networks of outcomes of social interactions. More narrowly, economic sociology considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets". Sociologists, such as Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about
3597-400: Is able to access information from diverse sources and clusters. For example, in business networks , this is beneficial to an individual's career because he is more likely to hear of job openings and opportunities if his network spans a wide range of contacts in different industries/sectors. This concept is similar to Mark Granovetter's theory of weak ties , which rests on the basis that having
3706-399: Is called transitivity. Transitivity is an outcome of the individual or situational trait of Need for Cognitive Closure . Propinquity : The tendency for actors to have more ties with geographically close others. Bridge : An individual whose weak ties fill a structural hole , providing the only link between two individuals or clusters. It also includes the shortest route when a longer one
3815-502: Is carried out considering the network of words co-occurring in a text. In these networks, nodes are words and links among them are weighted based on their frequency of co-occurrence (within a specific maximum range). Social network analysis has also been applied to understanding online behavior by individuals, organizations, and between websites. Hyperlink analysis can be used to analyze the connections between websites or webpages to examine how information flows as individuals navigate
3924-428: Is collected. Social Networking Potential (SNP) is a numeric coefficient , derived through algorithms to represent both the size of an individual's social network and their ability to influence that network. SNP coefficients were first defined and used by Bob Gerstley in 2002. A closely related term is Alpha User , defined as a person with a high SNP. SNP coefficients have two primary functions: By calculating
4033-493: Is credited with developing the first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social network analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other complex networks , it forms part of
4142-491: Is directly tied to every other individual, ' social circles ' if there is less stringency of direct contact, which is imprecise, or as structurally cohesive blocks if precision is wanted. Clustering coefficient : A measure of the likelihood that two associates of a node are associates. A higher clustering coefficient indicates a greater 'cliquishness'. Cohesion: The degree to which actors are connected directly to each other by cohesive bonds . Structural cohesion refers to
4251-537: Is now commonly available as a consumer tool (see the list of SNA software ). Social network analysis has its theoretical roots in the work of early sociologists such as Georg Simmel and Émile Durkheim , who wrote about the importance of studying patterns of relationships that connect social actors. Social scientists have used the concept of " social networks " since early in the 20th century to connote complex sets of relationships between members of social systems at all scales, from interpersonal to international. In
4360-606: Is primarily used in social and behavioral sciences, and in economics . Originally, the term was used extensively in the computer sciences (see large-scale network mapping ). Complex networks : Most larger social networks display features of social complexity , which involves substantial non-trivial features of network topology , with patterns of complex connections between elements that are neither purely regular nor purely random (see, complexity science , dynamical system and chaos theory ), as do biological , and technological networks . Such complex network features include
4469-573: Is that individual agency is often ignored although this may not be the case in practice (see agent-based modeling ). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, network analytics are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to anthropology , biology , communication studies , economics , geography , information science , organizational studies , social psychology , sociology , and sociolinguistics . In
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4578-583: Is that polysystem theory, which has been around since the writings of Even-Zohar , can be integrated with network theory and the relationships between different actors in the literary network, e.g. writers, critics, publishers, literary histories, etc., can be mapped using visualization from SNA. Research studies of formal or informal organization relationships , organizational communication , economics , economic sociology , and other resource transfers . Social networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other, characterizing
4687-402: Is the lack of robustness of network metrics given missing data. Based on the pattern of homophily , ties between people are most likely to occur between nodes that are most similar to each other, or within neighbourhood segregation , individuals are most likely to inhabit the same regional areas as other individuals who are like them. Therefore, social networks can be used as a tool to measure
4796-834: Is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory . It characterizes networked structures in terms of nodes (individual actors, people, or things within the network) and the ties , edges , or links (relationships or interactions) that connect them. Examples of social structures commonly visualized through social network analysis include social media networks , meme spread, information circulation, friendship and acquaintance networks , business networks, knowledge networks, difficult working relationships, collaboration graphs , kinship , disease transmission , and sexual relationships . These networks are often visualized through sociograms in which nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines. These visualizations provide
4905-495: Is unfeasible due to a high risk of message distortion or delivery failure. Centrality : Centrality refers to a group of metrics that aim to quantify the "importance" or "influence" (in a variety of senses) of a particular node (or group) within a network. Examples of common methods of measuring "centrality" include betweenness centrality , closeness centrality , eigenvector centrality , alpha centrality , and degree centrality . Density : The proportion of direct ties in
5014-515: Is very likely to morph into a balanced cycle, such as one where B only has a good relationship with A, and both A and B have a negative relationship with C. By using the concept of balanced and unbalanced cycles, the evolution of signed social network graphs can be predicted. Especially when using social network analysis as a tool for facilitating change, different approaches of participatory network mapping have proven useful. Here participants / interviewers provide network data by actually mapping out
5123-568: The Harvard University Department of Social Relations . Also independently active in the Harvard Social Relations department at the time were Charles Tilly , who focused on networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and Stanley Milgram , who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis. Mark Granovetter and Barry Wellman are among the former students of White who elaborated and championed
5232-568: The Manchester School , including John A. Barnes , J. Clyde Mitchell and Elizabeth Bott Spillius , often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom. Concomitantly, British anthropologist S. F. Nadel codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis. In sociology ,
5341-464: The September 11 attacks . Large textual corpora can be turned into networks and then analysed with the method of social network analysis. In these networks, the nodes are Social Actors, and the links are Actions. The extraction of these networks can be automated by using parsers. The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from network theory to identify
5450-585: The 1930s Jacob Moreno and Helen Jennings introduced basic analytical methods. In 1954, John Arundel Barnes started using the term systematically to denote patterns of ties, encompassing concepts traditionally used by the public and those used by social scientists: bounded groups (e.g., tribes, families) and social categories (e.g., gender, ethnicity). Starting in the 1970s, scholars such as Ronald Burt , Kathleen Carley , Mark Granovetter , David Krackhardt , Edward Laumann , Anatol Rapoport , Barry Wellman , Douglas R. White , and Harrison White expanded
5559-477: The 1980s. This framework has the capacity to represent social-structural effects commonly observed in many human social networks, including general degree -based structural effects commonly observed in many human social networks as well as reciprocity and transitivity , and at the node-level, homophily and attribute -based activity and popularity effects, as derived from explicit hypotheses about dependencies among network ties. Parameters are given in terms of
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#17328844411885668-520: The R package SIENA (Simulation Investigation for Empirical Network Analyses), developed by Tom Snijders and colleagues. Longitudinal social network analysis became mainstream after the publication of a special issue of the Journal of Research on Adolescence in 2013, edited by René Veenstra and containing 15 empirical papers. Social network analysis is also used in intelligence, counter-intelligence and law enforcement activities. This technique allows
5777-704: The SNP of respondents and by targeting High SNP respondents, the strength and relevance of quantitative marketing research used to drive viral marketing strategies is enhanced. Variables used to calculate an individual's SNP include but are not limited to: participation in Social Networking activities, group memberships, leadership roles, recognition, publication/editing/contributing to non-electronic media, publication/editing/contributing to electronic media (websites, blogs), and frequency of past distribution of information within their network. The acronym "SNP" and some of
5886-476: The analysis is on the "connections" made among the participants – how they interact and communicate – as opposed to how each participant behaved on his or her own. There are several key terms associated with social network analysis research in computer-supported collaborative learning such as: density , centrality , indegree , outdegree , and sociogram . In-degree and out-degree variables are related to centrality. Researchers employ social network analysis in
5995-544: The analysis of social networks. Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced work by sociologists, political scientists, and physicists such as Duncan J. Watts , Albert-László Barabási , Peter Bearman , Nicholas A. Christakis , James H. Fowler , and others, developing and applying new models and methods to emerging data available about online social networks, as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks. In general, social networks are self-organizing , emergent , and complex , such that
6104-405: The analysts to map covert organizations such as an espionage ring, an organized crime family or a street gang. The National Security Agency (NSA) uses its electronic surveillance programs to generate the data needed to perform this type of analysis on terrorist cells and other networks deemed relevant to national security. The NSA looks up to three nodes deep during this network analysis. After
6213-1092: The artist. Other work examines how network grouping of artists can affect an individual artist's auction performance. An artist's status has been shown to increase when associated with higher status networks, though this association has diminishing returns over an artist's career. In J.A. Barnes' day, a " community " referred to a specific geographic location and studies of community ties had to do with who talked, associated, traded, and attended church with whom. Today, however, there are extended "online" communities developed through telecommunications devices and social network services . Such devices and services require extensive and ongoing maintenance and analysis, often using network science methods. Community development studies, today, also make extensive use of such methods. Complex networks require methods specific to modelling and interpreting social complexity and complex adaptive systems , including techniques of dynamic network analysis . Mechanisms such as Dual-phase evolution explain how temporal changes in connectivity contribute to
6322-544: The benefits of information brokerage. A study of high tech Chinese firms by Zhixing Xiao found that the control benefits of structural holes are "dissonant to the dominant firm-wide spirit of cooperation and the information benefits cannot materialize due to the communal sharing values" of such organizations. However, this study only analyzed Chinese firms, which tend to have strong communal sharing values. Information and control benefits of structural holes are still valuable in firms that are not quite as inclusive and cooperative on
6431-412: The bonds between partners. The relational dimension explains the nature of these ties which is mainly illustrated by the level of trust accorded to the network of organizations. The cognitive dimension analyses the extent to which organizations share common goals and objectives as a result of their ties and interactions. Social capital is a sociological concept about the value of social relations and
6540-415: The central player in the network. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong connections. Information within these clusters tends to be rather homogeneous and redundant. Non-redundant information is most often obtained through contacts in different clusters. When two separate clusters possess non-redundant information, there is said to be a structural hole between them. Thus,
6649-474: The context of social marketing intelligence was Communities Dominate Brands by Ahonen & Moore in 2005. In 2012, Nicola Greco ( UCL ) presents at TEDx the Social Networking Potential as a parallelism to the potential energy that users generate and companies should use, stating that "SNP is the new asset that every company should aim to have". Social network analysis is used extensively in
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#17328844411886758-435: The convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational. An axiom of the social network approach to understanding social interaction is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory
6867-553: The data is done through displaying nodes and ties in various layouts, and attributing colors, size and other advanced properties to nodes. Visual representations of networks may be a powerful method for conveying complex information, but care should be taken in interpreting node and graph properties from visual displays alone, as they may misrepresent structural properties better captured through quantitative analyses. Signed graphs can be used to illustrate good and bad relationships between humans. A positive edge between two nodes denotes
6976-615: The degree of segregation or homophily within a social network. Social Networks can both be used to simulate the process of homophily but it can also serve as a measure of level of exposure of different groups to each other within a current social network of individuals in a certain area. Social network analysis 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Social network analysis ( SNA )
7085-495: The early (1930s) work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure. Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist Peter Blau provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on social exchange theory . By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One group consisted of sociologist Harrison White and his students at
7194-399: The economy. Analysis of social networks is increasingly incorporated into health care analytics , not only in epidemiological studies but also in models of patient communication and education, disease prevention, mental health diagnosis and treatment, and in the study of health care organizations and systems . Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of
7303-582: The emergence of new data available about online social networks as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks. Computational SNA has been extensively used in research on study-abroad second language acquisition. Even in the study of literature, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and Romo, Wouter De Nooy, and Burgert Senekal. Indeed, social network analysis has found applications in various academic disciplines as well as practical contexts such as countering money laundering and terrorism . Size: The number of network members in
7412-565: The field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently. In psychology , in the 1930s, Jacob L. Moreno began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see sociometry ). In anthropology , the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski , Alfred Radcliffe-Brown , and Claude Lévi-Strauss . A group of social anthropologists associated with Max Gluckman and
7521-478: The fields of psychology or social psychology , ethnographic kinship analysis or other genealogical studies of relationships between individuals. Subset level : Subset levels of network research problems begin at the micro-level, but may cross over into the meso-level of analysis. Subset level research may focus on distance and reachability, cliques , cohesive subgroups, or other group actions or behavior . In general, meso-level theories begin with
7630-483: The firm-wide level. In 2004, Ronald Burt studied 673 managers who ran the supply chain for one of America's largest electronics companies. He found that managers who often discussed issues with other groups were better paid, received more positive job evaluations and were more likely to be promoted. Thus, bridging structural holes can be beneficial to an organization, and in turn, to an individual's career. Computer networks combined with social networking software produce
7739-402: The first algorithms developed to quantify an individual's social networking potential were described in the white paper "Advertising Research is Changing" (Gerstley, 2003) See Viral Marketing . The first book to discuss the commercial use of Alpha Users among mobile telecoms audiences was 3G Marketing by Ahonen, Kasper and Melkko in 2004. The first book to discuss Alpha Users more generally in
7848-467: The formation of structure in social networks. The study of social networks is being used to examine the nature of interdependencies between actors and the ways in which these are related to outcomes of conflict and cooperation. Areas of study include cooperative behavior among participants in collective actions such as protests ; promotion of peaceful behavior, social norms , and public goods within communities through networks of informal governance;
7957-501: The initial mapping of the social network is complete, analysis is performed to determine the structure of the network and determine, for example, the leaders within the network. This allows military or law enforcement assets to launch capture-or-kill decapitation attacks on the high-value targets in leadership positions to disrupt the functioning of the network. The NSA has been performing social network analysis on call detail records (CDRs), also known as metadata , since shortly after
8066-550: The intensity of social network use. In a dynamic framework, higher activity in a network feeds into higher social capital which itself encourages more activity. This particular cluster focuses on brand-image and promotional strategy effectiveness, taking into account the impact of customer participation on sales and brand-image. This is gauged through techniques such as sentiment analysis which rely on mathematical areas of study such as data mining and analytics. This area of research produces vast numbers of commercial applications as
8175-418: The interactions of social structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their analyses of political, economic and other institutions. Granovetter examines how social structures and social networks can affect economic outcomes like hiring, price, productivity and innovation and describes sociologists' contributions to analyzing the impact of social structure and networks on
8284-414: The key actors, the key communities or parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or centrality of certain nodes. This automates the approach introduced by Quantitative Narrative Analysis, whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object. In other approaches, textual analysis
8393-417: The lab. Still other experiments have documented the experimental induction of social contagion of voting behavior, emotions, risk perception, and commercial products. In demography , the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless people or intravenous drug users.) For example, respondent driven sampling
8502-486: The late 1890s, both Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tönnies foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of social groups . Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief ( Gemeinschaft , German, commonly translated as " community ") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links ( Gesellschaft , German, commonly translated as " society "). Durkheim gave
8611-857: The looloo iOS app peaked at number 1 on the Philippine App Store for Top Free Apps and number 1 under the Social Networking category. The following month, expansion to other major cities in the Philippines began, including Cebu City , Baguio , Tagaytay , Bacolod , Iloilo , Davao , and other major cities in several provinces of the country. The app has been featured in nationwide publications and news outlets, both online and offline, such as The Philippine Daily Inquirer , The Philippine Star , ABS-CBN News , GMA News Online, Yummy Magazine, Appetite Magazine, FOOD Magazine, and Esquire Philippines. As of December 2013, looloo had more than 90,000 registered users and exceeded 100,000 user-submitted reviews. It
8720-400: The main goal of any study is to understand consumer behaviour and drive sales. In many organizations , members tend to focus their activities inside their own groups, which stifles creativity and restricts opportunities. A player whose network bridges structural holes has an advantage in detecting and developing rewarding opportunities. Such a player can mobilize social capital by acting as
8829-413: The many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different organizations. Many organizational social network studies focus on teams . Within team network studies, research assesses, for example, the predictors and outcomes of centrality and power, density and centralization of team instrumental and expressive ties, and
8938-498: The micro-level, social network research typically begins with an individual, snowballing as social relationships are traced, or may begin with a small group of individuals in a particular social context. Dyadic level : A dyad is a social relationship between two individuals. Network research on dyads may concentrate on structure of the relationship (e.g. multiplexity, strength), social equality , and tendencies toward reciprocity/mutuality . Triadic level : Add one individual to
9047-406: The minimum number of members who, if removed from a group, would disconnect the group. Visual representation of social networks is important to understand the network data and convey the result of the analysis. Numerous methods of visualization for data produced by social network analysis have been presented. Many of the analytic software have modules for network visualization. Exploration of
9156-413: The nascent field of network science . The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups , organizations , or even entire societies ( social units , see differentiation ). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by such interactions . The ties through which any given social unit connects represent
9265-406: The network (with pen and paper or digitally) during the data collection session. An example of a pen-and-paper network mapping approach, which also includes the collection of some actor attributes (perceived influence and goals of actors) is the * Net-map toolbox . One benefit of this approach is that it allows researchers to collect qualitative data and ask clarifying questions while the network data
9374-445: The other members knew. To find new information or insights, members of the clique will have to look beyond the clique to its other friends and acquaintances. This is what Granovetter called "the strength of weak ties". In the context of networks, social capital exists where people have an advantage because of their location in a network. Contacts in a network provide information, opportunities and perspectives that can be beneficial to
9483-538: The past, such as lattices and random graphs , do not show these features. Various theoretical frameworks have been imported for the use of social network analysis. The most prominent of these are Graph theory , Balance theory , Social comparison theory, and more recently, the Social identity approach . Few complete theories have been produced from social network analysis. Two that have are structural role theory and heterophily theory . The basis of Heterophily Theory
9592-544: The place's name and address, operating hours and telephone number, average star rating, number of reviews and recommendations, as well as the complete list of all reviews submitted for that place. Places may also be added to lists for later viewing. In the 2nd quarter of 2013, looloo launched feature called "looloo Specials" This allowed partner merchants to extend special offers to looloo app users. These offers are may be redeemed by users upon visiting participating establishments. Social networking A social network
9701-473: The prevalence of small subgraph configurations in the network and can be interpreted as describing the combinations of local social processes from which a given network emerges. These probability models for networks on a given set of actors allow generalization beyond the restrictive dyadic independence assumption of micro-networks, allowing models to be built from theoretical structural foundations of social behavior. Scale-free networks : A scale-free network
9810-471: The private sector, businesses use social network analysis to support activities such as customer interaction and analysis, information system development analysis, marketing, and business intelligence needs (see social media analytics ). Some public sector uses include development of leader engagement strategies, analysis of individual and group engagement and media use , and community-based problem solving . Large numbers of researchers worldwide examine
9919-426: The quality, topic, and strategies of communication. Additionally, SNA can focus on specific aspects of the network connection, or the entire network as a whole. It uses graphical representations, written representations, and data representations to help examine the connections within a CSCL network. When applying SNA to a CSCL environment the interactions of the participants are treated as a social network. The focus of
10028-476: The relationship between humans and their natural , social , and built environments . The scientific philosophy of human ecology has a diffuse history with connections to geography , sociology , psychology , anthropology , zoology , and natural ecology . In the study of literary systems, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and Romo, De Nooy, Senekal, and Lotker , to study various aspects of how literature functions. The basic premise
10137-456: The role of between-team networks. Intra-organizational networks have been found to affect organizational commitment , organizational identification , interpersonal citizenship behaviour . Social capital is a form of economic and cultural capital in which social networks are central, transactions are marked by reciprocity , trust , and cooperation , and market agents produce goods and services not mainly for themselves, but for
10246-401: The role of cooperation and confidence to achieve positive outcomes. The term refers to the value one can get from their social ties. For example, newly arrived immigrants can make use of their social ties to established migrants to acquire jobs they may otherwise have trouble getting (e.g., because of unfamiliarity with the local language). A positive relationship exists between social capital and
10355-625: The role of social networks in both intrastate conflict and interstate conflict; and social networking among politicians, constituents, and bureaucrats. In criminology and urban sociology , much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, murders can be seen as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength. Diffusion of ideas and innovations studies focus on
10464-505: The scope of a social network analysis. The nuances of a local system may be lost in a large network analysis, hence the quality of information may be more important than its scale for understanding network properties. Thus, social networks are analyzed at the scale relevant to the researcher's theoretical question. Although levels of analysis are not necessarily mutually exclusive , there are three general levels into which networks may fall: micro-level , meso-level , and macro-level . At
10573-399: The social networks of children and adolescents. In questionnaires, they list all classmates, students in the same grade, or schoolmates, asking: "who are your best friends?". Students may sometimes nominate as many peers as they wish; other times, the number of nominations is limited. Social network researchers have investigated similarities in friendship networks. The similarity between friends
10682-601: The spread and use of ideas from one actor to another or one culture and another. This line of research seeks to explain why some become "early adopters" of ideas and innovations, and links social network structure with facilitating or impeding the spread of an innovation. A case in point is the social diffusion of linguistic innovation such as neologisms. Experiments and large-scale field trials (e.g., by Nicholas Christakis and collaborators) have shown that cascades of desirable behaviors can be induced in social groups, in settings as diverse as Honduras villages, Indian slums, or in
10791-445: The spread of misinformation on social media platforms or analyzing the influence of key figures in social networks. Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field which emerged from social psychology , sociology , statistics , and graph theory . Georg Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations". Jacob Moreno
10900-474: The strategies used to communicate within the group. Some authors also suggest that SNA provides a method of easily analyzing changes in participatory patterns of members over time. A number of research studies have applied SNA to CSCL across a variety of contexts. The findings include the correlation between a network's density and the teacher's presence, a greater regard for the recommendations of "central" participants, infrequency of cross-gender interaction in
11009-417: The study of computer-supported collaborative learning in part due to the unique capabilities it offers. This particular method allows the study of interaction patterns within a networked learning community and can help illustrate the extent of the participants' interactions with the other members of the group. The graphics created using SNA tools provide visualizations of the connections among participants and
11118-596: The use of iOS devices’ location-based hardware, the looloo iOS application is able to detect a device's location when using the Explore feature and display places in the user's immediate vicinity or in areas users may search for. Places are depicted as pins on a map or in a list, with their corresponding average star ratings. Explore filters may also be applied to identify places nearby, or those that are top-rated, trending, or offering Specials, among others. Users may view each place's profile page which displays information such as
11227-478: The use of systematic social network analysis. Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced a further resurgence with work by sociologists, political scientists, economists, computer scientists, and physicists such as Duncan J. Watts , Albert-László Barabási , Peter Bearman , Nicholas A. Christakis , James H. Fowler , Mark Newman , Matthew Jackson , Jon Kleinberg , and others, developing and applying new models and methods, prompted in part by
11336-545: The web. The connections between organizations has been analyzed via hyperlink analysis to examine which organizations within an issue community. Another concept that has emerged from this connection between social network theory and the Internet is the concept of netocracy , where several authors have emerged studying the correlation between the extended use of online social networks, and changes in social power dynamics. Social network analysis has been applied to social media as
11445-419: Was developed by sociologist Ronald Burt , and is sometimes referred to as an alternate conception of social capital. Tie Strength: Defined by the linear combination of time, emotional intensity, intimacy and reciprocity (i.e. mutuality). Strong ties are associated with homophily, propinquity and transitivity, while weak ties are associated with bridges. Groups are identified as ' cliques ' if every individual
11554-691: Was established as far back as classical antiquity. Resemblance is an important basis for the survival of friendships. Similarity in characteristics, attitudes, or behaviors means that friends understand each other more quickly, have common interests to talk about, know better where they stand with each other, and have more trust in each other. As a result, such relationships are more stable and valuable. Moreover, looking more alike makes young people more confident and strengthens them in developing their identity. Similarity in behavior can result from two processes: selection and influence. These two processes can be distinguished using longitudinal social network analysis in
11663-637: Was founded by Odell Ramirez, with the goal of developing a way for Filipinos to “discover the best dining, entertainment, and travel destinations within Metro Manila .” Official work on the iPhone app and website began in March 2012. The nine months between then and launch were spent developing the actual product and building a place database from scratch, which involved team members physically mapping and geographically tagging establishments in areas in and around Metro Manila. In January 2013, two months after launch,
11772-509: Was ranked as the no.1 most downloaded free app under the Food & Drink Category in the App Store (iOS) . Users of the looloo iOS app can review any of the places listed in app's place database. Its default setting detects nearby places for the user to review but a search function is available as well, should users decide to submit reviews for places not within their immediate vicinity. Users provide
11881-411: Was the finding in one study that more numerous weak ties can be important in seeking information and innovation, as cliques have a tendency to have more homogeneous opinions as well as share many common traits. This homophilic tendency was the reason for the members of the cliques to be attracted together in the first place. However, being similar, each member of the clique would also know more or less what
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