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195-754: Martin Van Buren Democratic William Henry Harrison Whig Presidential elections were held in the United States from October 30 to December 2, 1840. In the shadow of an incomplete economic recovery from the Panic of 1837 , Whig nominee William Henry Harrison defeated incumbent President Martin Van Buren of the Democratic Party . The election marked the first of two Whig victories in presidential elections, but

390-624: A brigade commanded by General Edward W. Tupper of Ohio. The Kentucky militia was under the command of General William Henry Harrison , the Governor of the Indiana Territory . Johnson's force was originally intended to join General William Hull at Detroit, but Hull surrendered Detroit on August 16 and his army was captured. Harrison by then was in command of the entire Northwest frontier and ordered Johnson to relieve Fort Wayne in

585-427: A mixed-race slave who was classified as octoroon (or seven-eighths white). Unlike other upper-class planters and leaders who had African-American mistresses or concubines, but never acknowledged them, Johnson treated Chinn as his common law wife . He acknowledged their two daughters as his children, giving them his surname, much to the consternation of some of his constituents. It is believed that because of this,

780-554: A running mate . He lost to William Henry Harrison , a Whig. Johnson then served two more years in the Kentucky House of Representatives. He tried to return to higher office but was defeated. He finally was elected to the Kentucky House in 1850, but died on November 19, 1850, just two weeks into his term. Richard Mentor Johnson was born in the settlement of Beargrass on the Kentucky frontier (present-day Louisville ) on October 17, 1780,

975-460: A "benevolent patriarch". Johnson and Chinn had two daughters, Adaline (or Adeline) Chinn Johnson and Imogene Chinn Johnson, whom he acknowledged and gave his surname to, with Johnson and Chinn preparing them "for a future as free women". Johnson taught them morality and basic literacy, with Julia undoubtedly teaching her own skills, with both later pushing for both of them to "receive regular academic lessons" which he later educated at home to prevent

1170-587: A coalition of small farmers, but also enjoyed support from the Tammany Hall machine in New York City. During this era, Van Buren largely determined Tammany Hall's political policy for New York's Democratic-Republicans. A New York state referendum that expanded state voting rights to all white men in 1821, and which further increased the power of Tammany Hall, was guided by Van Buren. Although Governor Clinton remained in office until late 1822, Van Buren emerged as

1365-583: A contentious debate over the tariff and Calhoun's decade-old criticisms of Jackson's actions in the First Seminole War , contributed to a split between Jackson and Calhoun. As the debate over the tariff and the proposed ability of South Carolina to nullify federal law consumed Washington, Van Buren, not Calhoun, increasingly emerged as Jackson's likely successor. The Petticoat affair was finally resolved when Van Buren offered to resign. In April 1831, Jackson accepted and reorganized his cabinet by asking for

1560-577: A contingent vote. The election of 1836 marked an important turning point in American political history because it saw the establishment of the Second Party System . In the early 1830s, the political party structure was still changing rapidly, and factional and personal leaders continued to play a major role in politics. By the end of the campaign of 1836, the new Second Party System was almost complete, as nearly every faction had been absorbed by either

1755-571: A diplomatic solution to a long-standing financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government, rejecting Jackson's threat to settle it by force. Likewise, when the Texas minister at Washington, D.C., proposed annexation to the administration in August ;1837, he was told that the proposition could not be entertained. Constitutional scruples and fear of war with Mexico were the reasons given for

1950-525: A doctor in Missouri . Meyers said that she was childless. There is also disagreement about the year of her death. Bevins writes that Adeline died in the 1833 cholera epidemic. Meyers wrote she died in 1836. The Library of Congress notes that she died in February 1836. Although Johnson treated these two daughters as his own, according to Meyers, the surviving Imogene was prevented from inheriting his estate at

2145-595: A father and state party leader, Van Buren remained closely engaged in his legislative duties, and during his time in the Senate he served as the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee . As he gained renown, Van Buren earned monikers like "Little Magician" and "Sly Fox". Van Buren chose to back Crawford over John Quincy Adams , Andrew Jackson , and Henry Clay in

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2340-532: A law partnership with his half-brother, James Van Alen, and became financially secure enough to increase his focus on politics. Van Buren had been active in politics from age 18, if not before. In 1801, he attended a Democratic-Republican Party convention in Troy, New York , where he worked successfully to secure for John Peter Van Ness the party nomination in a special election for the 6th Congressional District seat. Upon returning to Kinderhook, Van Buren broke with

2535-560: A letter protesting his treatment of the Cherokee. An estimated 4,000 Cherokee died during the Trail of Tears. Entire Indian nations were relocated, with some losing as much as half their populations. Van Buren claimed that America was "perhaps in the beginning unjustifiable aggressors” toward the Indians, but later became the "guardians". He told Congress that a "mixed occupancy of the same territory by

2730-568: A loose coalition bound by mutual opposition to Jackson's anti-bank policies. Lacking the party unity or organizational strength to field a single ticket or define a single platform, the Whigs ran several regional candidates in hopes of sending the election to the House of Representatives. The three candidates were Hugh Lawson White of Tennessee, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and William Henry Harrison of Indiana. Besides endorsing internal improvements and

2925-729: A member of the Democratic-Republican Party , won a seat in the New York State Senate , and was elected to the United States Senate in 1821. As the leader of the Bucktails faction of the party, Van Buren established the political machine known as the Albany Regency . He ran successfully for governor of New York to support Andrew Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election but resigned shortly after Jackson

3120-568: A national bank, the Whigs tried to tie Democrats to abolitionism and sectional tension, and attacked Jackson for "acts of aggression and usurpation of power". Southern voters represented the biggest potential impediment to Van Buren's quest for the presidency, as many were apprehensive at the prospect of a Northern president. Van Buren moved to obtain their support by assuring them that he opposed abolitionism and supported maintaining slavery in states where it already existed. To demonstrate consistency regarding his opinions on slavery, Van Buren cast

3315-476: A native of Buurmalsen, Netherlands who had emigrated to New Netherland in 1631 and purchased a plot of land on Manhattan Island . Along with being the first U.S. president who was not born a British subject, Van Buren was also the first U.S. president not of British ancestry; he was of entirely Dutch descent. Abraham Van Buren had been a Patriot during the American Revolution , and he later joined

3510-555: A new phase of attrition. Realizing it was almost impossible to remove the remaining Seminoles from Florida, the administration negotiated a compromise allowing them to remain in southwest Florida. Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas , which had won independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution . By suggesting

3705-456: A nomination to be made by a regular body of abolitionists and LeyMoyne also declined the vice-presidential nomination. Smith and Holley made a call for an abolitionist nominating convention to be held on April 1, 1840, in Albany, New York . 121 delegates attended the delegation and selected a presidential ticket of Birney and Thomas Earle . which was accepted. It took the name Liberty Party . Birney

3900-404: A plan to defeat the mobile, guerrilla warfare of the Indians. American troops moved slowly, dependent on a supply line. Indians would evade battle and raid supplies until the American forces withdrew or were overrun. Mounted riflemen could move quickly, carry their own supplies, and live off the woods. If they attacked Indian villages in winter, the Indians would be compelled to stand and fight for

4095-531: A political lieutenant of Aaron Burr . Van Ness introduced Van Buren to the intricacies of New York state politics, and Van Buren observed Burr's battles for control of the state Democratic-Republican party against George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston . He returned to Kinderhook in 1803, after his admission to the New York bar . Van Buren married Hannah Hoes in Catskill, New York , on February 21, 1807, when he

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4290-458: A political organizer. His formal education ended in 1796, when he began reading law at the office of Peter Silvester and his son Francis. Van Buren, at 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) tall, was small in stature, and affectionately nicknamed "Little Van". . He was also called the "Red Fox" due to his "bushy reddish sideburns, striking forehead and prominent nose." When he began his legal studies he wore rough, homespun clothing, causing

4485-415: A popular majority and 234 of 294 electoral votes . Voter participation surged as white male suffrage became nearly universal, and a contemporary record of 42.4% of the voting age population voted for Harrison. Van Buren's loss made him the third president to lose re-election. The Whigs did not enjoy the benefits of victory. The 67-year-old Harrison, the oldest U.S. president elected until Ronald Reagan won

4680-630: A prominent Freemason , and in the late 1830s was part of a Masonic organization, the Hunters Lodge, that unsuccessfully planned an invasion of Canada to overthrow the British government there and establish a provisional American administration. Family tradition holds that Johnson broke off an early marital engagement when he was about sixteen because of his mother's disapproval. Purportedly Johnson vowed revenge for his mother's interference. His former fiancée later gave birth to his daughter, named Celia, who

4875-527: A proposal by President Madison to establish three additional military academies, urging the placement of one of them in Kentucky. Despite the support of such influential members of the House as Clay and John C. Calhoun , the proposal did not pass, but Johnson worked to have federal facilities built in the West throughout his time in Congress. Johnson believed that Congressional business was too slow and tedious and that

5070-490: A proposed U.S. constitutional amendment limiting the power of the federal courts to matters involving the U.S. Constitution. Throughout his political career, Johnson sought to limit the jurisdiction of federal courts, which he deemed undemocratic. In 1806, Johnson was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the United States House of Representatives, serving as the first native Kentuckian to be elected to Congress. In

5265-481: A prosecutor of William Hull during Hull's court-martial following the surrender of Detroit. Anticipating another military campaign, he collaborated with Winfield Scott on ways to reorganize the New York Militia in the winter of 1814–1815, but the end of the war halted their work in early 1815. Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him. Van Buren's strong support for

5460-521: A raid on Kaskaskia that had taken the post where the British had distributed arms and money to the Indians. Johnson's cavalry defeated Tecumseh's main force on September 29, took British supply trains on October 3, and was one of the factors inducing Procter to stand and fight at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, as Tecumseh had been demanding he do. One of Johnson's slaves, Daniel Chinn, accompanied Johnson to

5655-479: A senator from Massachusetts who could have potentially threatened Van Buren's project to create two parties separated by policy differences rather than personalities. During Jackson's second term, the president's supporters began to refer to themselves as members of the Democratic Party. Meanwhile, those opposed to Jackson, including Clay's National Republicans, followers of Calhoun and Webster, and many members of

5850-604: A severe blow to the Albany Regency, as Clinton returned to the governorship with the support of the People's party. By the time the state legislature convened to choose the state's presidential electors , results from other states had made it clear that no individual would win a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the United States House of Representatives . While Adams and Jackson finished in

6045-400: A severe stroke that left him in poor health, Van Buren continued to support his chosen candidate. In May 1824, Van Buren met with 81-year-old former President Thomas Jefferson in an attempt to bolster Crawford's candidacy, and though he was unsuccessful in gaining a public endorsement for Crawford, he nonetheless cherished the chance to meet with his political hero. The 1824 elections dealt

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6240-430: A similar relationship with her sister, also a slave. After passing the bar, Johnson returned to Great Crossing, where his father gave him a plantation and slaves to work it. The many lawsuits over ownership of land provided him with much legal work, and, combined with his agricultural interests, he quickly became prosperous. Johnson ran for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1803, but finished third, behind

6435-535: A two-story brick home, she managed Johnson's estate for at least half of each year, with her purview later expanding to all of his property, even acting as "Richard's representative" and allowing her to handle money. This gave, as historical scholar Christina Snyder argues, some independence, since Johnson told his white employees that Chinn's authority must be respected, and her role allowing her children's lives to be different from "others of African descent at Great Crossings", giving them levels of privileged access within

6630-510: A voluminous report, but it was objected to by Representative Daniel Webster , who felt the report, including much correspondence, needed to be printed so that all congressmen could study it. This postponed any debate to 1815, by which time the Treaty of Ghent had been ratified, and the United States was again at peace. With Congress having little interest in debating the matter, it was dropped. Had

6825-466: A wealthy and politically connected family." About the time of Richard's birth, the family moved to Bryan's Station , near present-day Lexington in the Bluegrass Region . This was a fortified outpost, as there was much Native American resistance to white settlement. The Shawnee and Cherokee hunted in this area. Jemima Johnson was remembered as among the community's heroic women because of what

7020-430: A wealthy snob living in luxury at the public expense. Although Harrison was comfortably wealthy and well educated, his " log cabin " image caught fire, sweeping all sections of the country. Harrison avoided campaigning on the issues, with his Whig Party attracting a broad coalition with few common ideals. The Whig strategy overall was to win the election by avoiding discussion of difficult national issues such as slavery or

7215-510: A widower, Van Buren was unaffected by the position of the cabinet wives. Van Buren initially sought to mend the divide in the cabinet, but most of the leading citizens in Washington continued to snub the Eatons. Jackson was close to Eaton, and he came to the conclusion that the allegations against Eaton arose from a plot against his administration led by Henry Clay. The Petticoat Affair, combined with

7410-454: Is praised for anti-slavery stances, in historical rankings, historians and political scientists often rank Van Buren as an average or below-average U.S. president , due to his handling of the Panic of 1837. Van Buren was initially the leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination again in 1844, but his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas angered Southern Democrats, leading to

7605-488: Is seen campaigning for re-election. These scenes have been criticized for their historical inaccuracy. Martin Van Buren Martin Van Buren ( / v æ n ˈ b jʊər ən / van BURE -ən ; Dutch : Maarten van Buren [ˈmaːrtə(ɱ) vɑm ˈbyːrə(n)] ; December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was the eighth president of the United States , serving from 1837 to 1841. A primary founder of

7800-564: The 1812 presidential election . After the election, Van Buren became suspicious that Clinton was working with the Federalist Party, and he broke from his former political ally. During the War of 1812, Van Buren worked with Clinton, Governor Tompkins, and Ambrose Spencer to support the Madison administration's prosecution of the war. In addition, he was a special judge advocate appointed to serve as

7995-547: The 1828 election . Hoping that a Jackson victory would lead to his elevation to Secretary of State or Secretary of the Treasury, Van Buren chose Enos T. Throop as his running mate and preferred successor. Van Buren's candidacy was aided by the split between supporters of Adams, who had adopted the label of National Republicans , and the Anti-Masonic Party. Reflecting his public association with Jackson, Van Buren accepted

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8190-462: The 1840 Democratic National Convention , but controversial Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson was not renominated. The Democrats thus became the only major party since 1800 to fail to select a vice presidential nominee. Referencing vice presidential nominee John Tyler and Harrison's participation in the Battle of Tippecanoe , the Whigs campaigned on the slogan of " Tippecanoe and Tyler Too ." With Van Buren weakened by economic woes, Harrison won

8385-645: The American Civil War , Van Buren was a War Democrat who supported the policies of President Abraham Lincoln , a Republican . He died of asthma at his home in Kinderhook in 1862, aged 79. Martin Van Buren was born on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York , about 20 miles (32 km) south of Albany in the Hudson River Valley . His father, Abraham Van Buren , was a descendant of Cornelis Maessen,

8580-488: The Battle of the Thames . Many reported that he personally killed the Shawnee chief Tecumseh , a claim that he later used to his political advantage. After the war, Johnson returned to the House of Representatives. The state legislature appointed him to the Senate in 1819 to fill the seat vacated by John J. Crittenden . With his increasing prominence, Johnson was criticized for his interracial relationship with Julia Chinn ,

8775-819: The British West Indies colonies and concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that gained American merchants access to the Black Sea . Items on which he did not achieve success included settling the Maine - New Brunswick boundary dispute with Great Britain, gaining settlement of the U.S. claim to the Oregon Country , concluding a commercial treaty with Russia, and persuading Mexico to sell Texas . In addition to his foreign policy duties, Van Buren quickly emerged as an important advisor to Jackson on major domestic issues like

8970-502: The Democratic Party , he served as New York's attorney general and U.S. senator , then briefly as the ninth governor of New York before joining Andrew Jackson 's administration as the tenth United States secretary of state , minister to Great Britain , and ultimately the eighth vice president from 1833 to 1837, after being elected on Jackson's ticket in 1832 . Van Buren won the presidency in 1836 against divided Whig opponents. Van Buren lost re-election in 1840 , and failed to win

9165-466: The Democratic-Republican Party . He owned an inn and tavern in Kinderhook and served as Kinderhook's town clerk for several years. In 1776, he married Maria Hoes (or Goes) Van Alen (1746–1818) in the town of Kinderhook , also of Dutch extraction and the widow of Johannes Van Alen (1744-c. 1773). She had three children from her first marriage, including future U.S. Representative James I. Van Alen . Her second marriage produced five children, of which Martin

9360-698: The Embargo Act of 1807 , with Johnson voting in support, finding economic warfare preferable to the use of guns: "we fear no nation, but let the time for shedding human blood be protracted, when consistent with our safety". Over the following year, Congress attempted to tighten the Embargo, which was widely evaded, especially in the Northeast, with Johnson voting in favor each time. Johnson generally supported Jefferson's proposals, and those of his successor James Madison : all three were Democratic-Republicans , and Johnson saw

9555-579: The Federalist Party , of which the Silvesters were also strong supporters, Van Buren adopted his father's Democratic-Republican leanings. The Silvesters and Democratic-Republican political figure John Peter Van Ness suggested that Van Buren's political leanings constrained him to complete his education with a Democratic-Republican attorney, so he spent a final year of apprenticeship in the New York City office of John Van Ness's brother William P. Van Ness ,

9750-498: The Hamiltonian economic model favored by Federalists, which he strongly opposed. Despite his opposition to Adams's public policies, Van Buren easily secured re-election in his divided home state in 1827. Van Buren's overarching goal at the national level was to restore a two-party system with party cleavages based on philosophical differences, and he viewed the old divide between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans as beneficial to

9945-610: The Kentucky House of Representatives for Scott County (where Great Crossing is) and this time was elected, the first native Kentuckian to serve in the state's legislature. Although the Kentucky Constitution imposed an age requirement of twenty-four for members of the House of Representatives, Johnson was so popular that no one raised questions about his age, and he was allowed to take his seat. Seeking to protect his constituents, most of whom were small farmers, he introduced

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10140-737: The Kentucky House of Representatives . After two years in the Kentucky House, Johnson was elected to the U.S. House in 1806. He became allied with fellow Kentuckian Henry Clay as a member of the War Hawks faction that favored war with Britain in 1812. At the outset of the War of 1812 , Johnson was commissioned a colonel in the Kentucky Militia and commanded a regiment of mounted volunteers from 1812 to 1813. He and his brother James served under William Henry Harrison in Upper Canada . Johnson led troops in

10335-633: The Kitchen Cabinet , Jackson's informal circle of advisors. In August 1831, Jackson gave Van Buren a recess appointment as the ambassador to Britain , and Van Buren arrived in London in September. He was cordially received, but in February ;1832, shortly after his 49th birthday, he learned that the Senate had rejected his nomination. The rejection of Van Buren was essentially the work of Calhoun. When

10530-599: The New Hampshire General Court made a call for the 1840 Democratic National Convention which was held in Baltimore, Maryland in May 1840. Delegates from twenty-two states attended the convention, but the sizes of the delegations varied with New Jersey having fifty-nine delegates to cast its eight votes while Massachusetts only had one delegate to cast its fourteen votes. A committee was formed to make recommendations for

10725-459: The Petticoat Affair . The Petticoat Affair arose because Peggy Eaton , wife of Secretary of War John H. Eaton , was ostracized by the other cabinet wives due to the circumstances of her marriage. Led by Floride Calhoun , wife of Vice President John Calhoun, the other cabinet wives refused to pay courtesy calls to the Eatons, receive them as visitors, or invite them to social events. As

10920-539: The electoral votes needed to secure his election. Virginia 's delegation to the Electoral College refused to endorse Johnson, voting instead for William Smith of South Carolina . The Senate elected him to the vice-presidential office. Johnson proved such a liability for the Democrats in the 1836 election that they refused to renominate him for vice president in 1840 . Van Buren campaigned for reelection without

11115-421: The per diem system of compensation encouraged delays on the part of members. To remedy this, he sponsored legislation to pay annual salaries of $ 1,500 to congressmen rather than a $ 6 per diem for the days the body was in session. At the time, this had the effect of increasing the total compensation from about $ 900 to $ 1500. Johnson noted that congressmen had not had a pay increase in 27 years, during which time

11310-522: The presidential election of 1824 . Crawford shared Van Buren's affinity for Jeffersonian principles of states' rights and limited government, and Van Buren believed that Crawford was the ideal figure to lead a coalition of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia's " Richmond Junto ". Van Buren's support for Crawford aroused strong opposition in New York in the form of the People's party, which drew support from Clintonians, Federalists, and others opposed to Van Buren. Nonetheless, Van Buren helped Crawford win

11505-425: The " Bucktails ". The Bucktails succeeded in emphasizing party loyalty and used it to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York. Through his use of patronage, loyal newspapers, and connections with local party officials and leaders, Van Buren established what became known as the " Albany Regency ", a political machine that emerged as an important factor in New York politics. The Regency relied on

11700-471: The " Era of Good Feelings ", a period in which partisan distinctions at the national level had faded. Van Buren quickly became a prominent figure in Washington, D.C., befriending Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford , among others. Though not an exceptional orator, Van Buren frequently spoke on the Senate floor, usually after extensively researching the subject at hand. Despite his commitments as

11895-480: The 1980 election, died a little more than a month after inauguration. Harrison was succeeded by John Tyler, who unexpectedly proved not to be a Whig. While Tyler had been a staunch supporter of Clay at the convention, he was a former Democrat, a passionate supporter of states' rights, and effectively an independent. As President, Tyler blocked the Whigs' legislative agenda and was expelled from the Whig Party, subsequently

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12090-646: The Americans identified the proper body as Tecumseh (whose death was attested to by British officers who had been at the battle) is another source of contention. On April 4, 1818, an act of Congress requested that the President of the United States present to Johnson a sword in honor of his "daring and distinguished valor" at the Battle of the Thames. The sword was presented to Johnson by President James Monroe in April 1820. Johnson

12285-420: The Anti-Masonic Party, coalesced into the Whig Party . President Andrew Jackson declined to seek another term in the 1836 presidential election , but he remained influential within the Democratic Party as his second term came to an end. Jackson was determined to help elect Van Buren in 1836 so that the latter could continue the Jackson administration's policies. The two men—the charismatic "Old Hickory" and

12480-458: The Burr faction, becoming an ally of both DeWitt Clinton and Daniel D. Tompkins . After the faction led by Clinton and Tompkins dominated the 1807 elections, Van Buren was appointed Surrogate of Columbia County, New York . Seeking a better base for his political and legal career, Van Buren and his family moved to the town of Hudson , the seat of Columbia County, in 1808. Van Buren's legal practice continued to flourish, and he traveled all over

12675-429: The Democratic nomination in 1844 . Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an anti-slavery leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the 1848 presidential election . Van Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York , where most residents were of Dutch descent and spoke Dutch as their primary language; he is the only president to have spoken English as a second language. He entered politics as

12870-404: The Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election. With Jackson's strong support and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party, Van Buren successfully ran for president in the 1836 presidential election. However, his popularity soon eroded because of his response to the Panic of 1837 , which centered on his Independent Treasury system, a plan under which the federal government of

13065-416: The Democratic-Republican party's presidential nomination at the February 1824 congressional nominating caucus . The other Democratic-Republican candidates in the race refused to accept the poorly attended caucus's decision, and as the Federalist Party had all but ceased to function as a national party, the 1824 campaign became a competition among four candidates of the same party. Though Crawford suffered

13260-413: The Democrats or the Whigs. Martin Van Buren was sworn in as the eighth President of the United States on March 4, 1837. He retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would stop Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity. The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of

13455-420: The Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular . Cries of "rescind the circular!" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like Nicholas Biddle , believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank of the United States was directly responsible for

13650-776: The Electoral College when it voted for president and vice-president. Harrison's victory won him precious little time as chief executive of the United States. After giving the longest inauguration speech in U.S. history (lasting about 1 hour and 45 minutes, in cold weather and rain), Harrison served only one month as president before dying of pneumonia on April 4, 1841. [REDACTED] Source (Popular Vote): Leip, David. "1840 Presidential Election Results" . Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections . Retrieved July 27, 2005 . Source (Electoral Vote): "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996" . National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved July 31, 2005 . The popular vote figures exclude South Carolina where

13845-462: The Electors were chosen by the state legislature rather than by popular vote. Source: Data from Walter Dean Burnham, Presidential ballots, 1836–1892 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) pp 247–257. States where the margin of victory was under 1%: States where the margin of victory was under 5%: States where the margin of victory was under 10%: " Tippecanoe and Tyler too " In the 1997 film Amistad , Van Buren (played by Nigel Hawthorne )

14040-482: The House contest, Van Buren shrewdly kept out of the controversy which followed, and began looking forward to 1828. Jackson was angered to see the presidency go to Adams despite Jackson having won more popular votes than Adams had, and he eagerly looked forward to a rematch. Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of having made a " corrupt bargain " in which Clay helped Adams win the contingent election in return for Clay's appointment as Secretary of State . Van Buren

14235-545: The House on October 26, 1807; Congress had been called into special session by President Jefferson to consider how to react to the Chesapeake – Leopard affair , the forcible boarding of an American naval ship by a British vessel, with four sailors seized as deserters and one hanged. Jefferson had tried to maintain neutrality with the main combatants in the Napoleonic Wars , Britain and France, and at his urging, Congress passed

14430-421: The House to support him. He hoped to engineer a Crawford victory on the second ballot of the contingent election, but Adams won on the first ballot with the help of Clay and Stephen Van Rensselaer , a Congressman from New York. Despite his close ties with Van Buren, Van Rensselaer cast his vote for Adams, thus giving Adams a narrow majority of New York's delegation and a victory in the contingent election. After

14625-585: The House. For his fifth and sixth consecutive terms, 1815 to 1819, he represented Kentucky's Third District . Johnson continued to represent the interests of the poor as a member of the House. He first came to national attention with his opposition to rechartering the First Bank of the United States . Johnson served as chairman of the Committee on Claims during the Eleventh Congress (1809–1811). The committee

14820-667: The Independent Treasury system in 1841, but it was revived in 1846, and remained in place until the passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. More important for Van Buren's immediate future, the depression would be a major issue in his upcoming re-election campaign. Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act of 1830 , and

15015-443: The Kentucky militia under Governor Isaac Shelby , but largely operating independently. He disciplined his men, required that every man have arms in prime condition and ready to hand, and hired gunsmiths , blacksmiths , and doctors at his own expense. He devised a new tactical system: when any group of men encountered the enemy, they were to dismount, take cover, and hold the enemy in place. All groups not in contact were to ride to

15210-598: The Lexington college, where his father was a trustee, he read law as a legal apprentice with George Nicholas and James Brown , later a US Senator. Johnson was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1802, and opened his law office at Great Crossing. Later, he owned a retail store as a merchant and pursued a number of business ventures with his brothers. Johnson often worked pro bono for poor people, prosecuting their cases when they had merit. He also opened his home to disabled veterans, widows, and orphans. Johnson also became

15405-546: The Post Office, War Department, and Navy Department had significant autonomy under their respective cabinet secretaries. When Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over. Two months into his presidency, on May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout

15600-448: The Silvesters to admonish him to pay greater heed to his clothing and personal appearance as an aspiring lawyer. He accepted their advice, and subsequently emulated the Silvesters' clothing, appearance, bearing, and conduct. The lessons he learned from the Silvesters were reflected in his career as a lawyer and politician, in which Van Buren was known for his amiability and fastidious appearance. Despite Kinderhook's strong affiliation with

15795-539: The South would never support Adams, and New England would never support Jackson, he was willing to alienate both regions through passage of the tariff. Meanwhile, Clinton's death from a heart attack in 1828 dramatically shook up the politics of Van Buren's home state, while the Anti-Masonic Party emerged as an increasingly important factor. After some initial reluctance, Van Buren chose to run for Governor of New York in

15990-486: The United States passed Congress in early 1816. Johnson was opposed, but was absent for the vote, busy with other matters. A bonus was to be paid to the government by the Second Bank, and a bill was introduced early in 1817 to spend that money on internal improvements. Although Johnson was opposed to the national bank, he supported the bill, believing that the improvements to transportation would benefit his constituents, and

16185-585: The United States , to settle the liabilities. Johnson announced his intent to retire from the House of Representatives in early 1818. Sources differ on why he did; David Petriello, in his biography of Johnson, stated that the Kentucky congressman had determined to move on to the Senate; an earlier biographer, Leland Winfield Meyer stated that Johnson's departure from the House was because he believed in rotation in office and felt he had served there long enough. Jones stated that Johnson planned to return to private life to deal with family business interests. Under

16380-462: The United States would store its funds in vaults rather than in banks; more conservative Democrats and Whigs in Congress ultimately delayed his plan from being implemented until 1840. His presidency was further marred by the costly Second Seminole War and his refusal to admit Texas to the Union as a slave state . In 1840, Van Buren lost his re-election bid to William Henry Harrison . While Van Buren

16575-548: The United States. The tariff also raised the cost of living in the South, because Southern states had little manufacturing capacity, which required them to export raw materials including cotton or sell them to Northern manufacturers, then import higher-priced finished goods or purchase them from the North. The tariff thus satisfied many who sought protection from foreign competition, but angered Southern cotton interests and New England importers and manufacturers. Because Van Buren believed

16770-518: The War Hawks, the young Southern and Western Democratic-Republicans who sought expansion and development of the nation, he was cautious in the runup to the War of 1812 . Johnson saw Britain as the major obstacle to United States control of North America, but worried about what a war might bring. By the time Congress met in late 1811, he had come around to war, and joined the War Hawks in electing one of their own, Henry Clay of Kentucky, as Speaker . Like

16965-503: The Whig party. Remaining leaders met in September 1837 in Washington, and agreed to maintain the party. The third Anti-Masonic Party National Convention was held in Philadelphia on November 13–14, 1838. By this time, the party had been almost entirely supplanted by the Whigs. The delegates unanimously voted to nominate William Henry Harrison for president (who the party had supported for president

17160-626: The age of 50. During the Nullification Crisis , Van Buren counseled Jackson to pursue a policy of conciliation with South Carolina leaders. He played little direct role in the passage of the Tariff of 1833 , but he quietly hoped that the tariff would help bring an end to the Nullification Crisis, which it did. As vice president, Van Buren continued to be one of Jackson's primary advisors and confidants, and accompanied Jackson on his tour of

17355-429: The army, his nurse and necessary assistant" was "obliged to sell his war-horse or his servant"; salaries would prevent such things from coming to pass. The bill passed the House and Senate quickly and was made law on March 19, 1816. But, the measure proved extremely unpopular with voters, in part because it gave Congress an immediate pay raise, rather than waiting until after the next election. Many members who supported

17550-400: The backlash by pledging to work for the repeal of his own measure. He justified his reversal by arguing that representatives should reflect the popular will, but lack of political stamina may have been closer to the truth." Johnson disliked the idea of a national bank, and had voted in 1811 not to renew the charter of the First Bank of the United States . Calhoun's bill for a Second Bank of

17745-554: The bank as an extension of the Hamiltonian economic program, so he supported Jackson's veto of the bank's re-charter. Henry Clay, the presidential nominee of the National Republicans, made the struggle over the bank the key issue of the presidential election of 1832 . The Jackson–Van Buren ticket won the 1832 election by a landslide, and Van Buren took office as the eighth Vice President of the United States on March 4, 1833, at

17940-461: The battle. At the battle itself, Johnson's forces were the first to attack. One battalion of five hundred men, under Johnson's elder brother, James Johnson, engaged the British force of eight hundred regulars ; simultaneously, Richard Johnson, with the other, now somewhat smaller battalion, attacked the fifteen hundred Indians led by Tecumseh. There was too much tree cover for the British volleys to be effective against James Johnson; three-quarters of

18135-483: The bill lost their seats as a result, including Johnson's colleague Solomon P. Sharp from Kentucky. Johnson's overall popularity helped him retain his seat against a challenge, one of only 15 of 81 who voted to pass the bill to keep their seats in the House. The old Congress met for a lame-duck session in December, repealed the new law effective when the new Congress was sworn in, but at Johnson's suggestion, did not revive

18330-416: The bill passed the House by two votes. Madison, then in his final days in office, vetoed the bill. Johnson joined the effort to override the veto, but it failed. The break from the administration was unusual for Johnson, but he believed the war had shown the need for better roads and canals. When he took office in 1817, President James Monroe 's first choice for Secretary of War was Henry Clay, who declined

18525-419: The committee favored a negative report and a censure for Jackson. Johnson, a Jackson supporter, drafted a minority report that was more favorable to Jackson and opposed the censure. The ensuing debate pitted Johnson against fellow Kentuckian Clay. Johnson's report prevailed, and Jackson was spared censure. This disagreement between Johnson and Clay, however, marked the beginning of a political separation between

18720-483: The conflicting opinions" of his counselors. Such detachment allowed the president to reserve judgment and protect his prerogative for making final decisions. These open discussions gave cabinet members a sense of participation and made them feel part of a functioning entity, rather than isolated executive agents. Van Buren was closely involved in foreign affairs and matters pertaining to the Treasury Department; but

18915-614: The construction of the Erie Canal , an ambitious project designed to connect Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean. Though many of Van Buren's allies urged him to block Clinton's Erie Canal bill, Van Buren believed that the canal would benefit the state. His support for the bill helped it win approval from the New York legislature. Despite his support for the Erie Canal, Van Buren became the leader of an anti-Clintonian faction in New York known as

19110-507: The cost of living had greatly increased, and that $ 1,500 was less than the salaries of 28 of the clerks employed by the government. The popular Johnson's sponsorship of the measure provided political cover for proponents; Maryland's Robert Wright wondered how his colleagues would feel if, "the highly honorable mover of this bill, who slew Tecumseh with his own hands ... he who came up here covered with wounds and glory, with his favorite war-horse and his more favorite servant—his attendant in

19305-658: The country: Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury came from New England, Attorney General Benjamin Franklin Butler and Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson hailed from New York and New Jersey, respectively, Secretary of State John Forsyth of Georgia represented the South, and Postmaster General Amos Kendall of Kentucky represented the West. For the lone open position of Secretary of War, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought

19500-589: The creation of an anti-slavery party. In July 1839, two resolutions proposed by Holley at the American Anti-Slavery Society 's meeting in Cleveland, called for the creation of an abolitionist party. They failed. Nevertheless, the supporters nominated Birney and Francis Julius LeMoyne as a presidential ticket at a meeting in Warsaw, New York . However, Birney declined the presidential nomination as he preferred

19695-452: The crisis, the Whigs proposed rechartering the national bank . The president countered by proposing the establishment of an independent U.S. treasury , which he contended would take the politics out of the nation's money supply. Under the plan, the government would hold its money in gold or silver , and would be restricted from printing paper money at will; both measures were designed to prevent inflation. The plan would permanently separate

19890-479: The decisive state of Pennsylvania by a little over 4,000 voters, indicating the fragility of the voting coalition that Van Buren had inherited from Jackson. Virginia's presidential electors voted for Van Buren for president, but voted for William Smith for vice president, leaving Johnson one electoral vote short of election. In accordance with the Twelfth Amendment , the Senate elected Johnson vice president in

20085-511: The efficient "Sly Fox"—had entirely different personalities but had become an effective team in eight years in office together. With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the 1835 Democratic National Convention without opposition. Two names were put forward for the vice-presidential nomination: Representative Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, and former Senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia. Southern Democrats, and Van Buren himself, strongly preferred Rives. Jackson, on

20280-410: The election was held in the wake of the Panic of 1837, one of the worst economic depressions in the nation's history, and voters blamed Van Buren, seeing him as unsympathetic to struggling citizens. Harrison campaigned vigorously and won. 31.9% of the voting age population and 80.3% of eligible voters participated in the election. This was the first time that a majority of southern voters participated in

20475-593: The election, Van Buren resigned from the Senate to start his term as governor, which began on January 1, 1829. While his term as governor was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Fund Law, an early form of deposit insurance, through the legislature. He also appointed several key supporters, including William L. Marcy and Silas Wright , to important state positions. In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State. Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor

20670-406: The election. (A majority in the north had first participated in an election in 1828.) Harrison won the support of western settlers and eastern bankers alike. Of the 1,179 counties/independent cities making returns, Harrison won in 699 (59.29%) while Van Buren carried 477 (40.46%). Three counties (0.25%) in the South split evenly between Harrison and Van Buren. The extent of Van Buren's unpopularity

20865-546: The federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian tribes during Van Buren's presidency. The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma . In 1838, Van Buren directed General Winfield Scott to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with

21060-406: The fifth of Robert and Jemima (Suggett) Johnson's 11 children, and the second of eight sons. His brothers John and Henry Johnson survived him. His parents married in 1770. Robert Johnson purchased land in what is now Kentucky, but was then part of Virginia, from Patrick Henry and from James Madison . He had worked as a surveyor and was able to pick out good land. His wife Jemima Suggett "came from

21255-554: The first election in U.S. history in which a candidate won more than a million popular votes. This was the last election where Indiana voted for the Whigs. It was also the only election where the Whigs won Maine, Michigan, and Mississippi. The election was also the last time that a majority of voters in Mississippi voted against the Democrats until 1872, the last in which a majority of voters in Indiana voted against Democrats until 1860, and

21450-425: The following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest of any Governor of New York. No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the Napoleonic Wars . He reached an agreement with the British to open trade with

21645-543: The former congressman had never officially declared his candidacy, and that Johnson's political friends intended to nominate him for governor in the 1820 election. Johnson's term in the House expired March 3, 1819, but by August, he had been elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, where he worked to secure passage of a law that abolished imprisonment for debtors in the state, though it did not pass until 1821. But when Senator John J. Crittenden resigned in November 1819,

21840-499: The government from private banks by storing government funds in government vaults rather than in private banks. Van Buren announced his proposal in September ;1837, but an alliance of conservative Democrats and Whigs prevented it from becoming law until 1840. As the debate continued, conservative Democrats like Rives defected to the Whig Party, which itself grew more unified in its opposition to Van Buren. The Whigs would abolish

22035-481: The gubernatorial nomination on a ticket that called itself "Jacksonian-Democrat". He campaigned on local as well as national issues, emphasizing his opposition to the policies of the Adams administration. Van Buren ran ahead of Jackson, winning the state by 30,000 votes compared to a margin of 5,000 for Jackson. Nationally, Jackson defeated Adams by a wide margin, winning nearly every state outside of New England. After

22230-454: The irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic. The Panic of 1837 loomed large over the 1838 election cycle , as the carryover effects of the economic downturn led to Whig gains in both the U.S. House and Senate. The state elections in 1837 and 1838 were also disastrous for the Democrats, and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis later that year. To address

22425-471: The journey, he was conveyed home in a bed in a carriage, arriving there in early November 1813. It took him five months to recover, though he was still left with a damaged left arm and hand, and was later described as walking with a limp. He returned to Congress in February 1814, but due to his wounds was unable to participate in debates until the following session of Congress. He received a hero's welcome, still suffering from war wounds that would plague him for

22620-432: The lake. This made the British army, then at Fort Malden (now Amherstburg, Ontario ) vulnerable to having its supply lines cut. The British, under General Henry Procter , withdrew to the northeast, pursued by Harrison, who had advanced through Michigan while Johnson kept the Indians engaged. The Indian chief Tecumseh and his allies covered the British retreat, but were countered by Johnson, who had been called back from

22815-547: The last in which a majority of voters in Maine and Michigan voted against Democrats until 1856. This is the only election in American history in which a majority of voters in Alabama and a majority of voters in Mississippi voted for different candidates. The 1840 presidential election was the only time in which four people who either had been or would become a U.S. President (Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, and Polk) received at least one vote in

23010-429: The leader of the state's Democratic-Republicans after the 1820 elections. Van Buren was a member of the 1820 state constitutional convention , where he favored expanded voting rights, but opposed universal suffrage and tried to maintain property requirements for voting. In February 1821, the state legislature elected Van Buren to represent New York in the United States Senate . Van Buren arrived in Washington during

23205-577: The legislature was called upon to fill the seat. The following month, the General Assembly elected Johnson to the Senate in a 68–53 vote over John Adair , who would be Kentucky's next governor. Johnson was sworn in on January 3, 1820. The Senate was at that time grappling with the admission of the Missouri Territory and the Maine District (then part of Massachusetts) as states. When a bill

23400-410: The nation quickly followed suit. This financial crisis would become known as the Panic of 1837 . The Panic was followed by a five-year depression in which banks failed and unemployment reached record highs. Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed

23595-435: The nation. Van Buren believed that these national parties helped ensure that elections were decided on national, rather than sectional or local, issues; as he put it, "party attachment in former times furnished a complete antidote for sectional prejudices". After the 1824 election, Van Buren was initially somewhat skeptical of Jackson, who had not taken strong positions on most policy issues. Nonetheless, he settled on Jackson as

23790-505: The national bank and concentrate instead on exploiting dissatisfaction over the failed policies of the Van Buren administration with colorful campaigning techniques. Harrison was the first president to campaign actively for office. He did so with the slogan " Tippecanoe and Tyler too ". Tippecanoe referred to Harrison's military victory over a group of Shawnee Native Americans at a river in Indiana called Tippecanoe in 1811. For their part, Democrats laughed at Harrison for being too old for

23985-469: The nomination of James K. Polk . Growing opposed to slavery, Van Buren was the newly formed Free Soil Party's presidential nominee in 1848, and his candidacy helped Whig nominee Zachary Taylor defeat Democrat Lewis Cass . Worried about sectional tensions, Van Buren returned to the Democratic Party after 1848 but was disappointed with the pro-southern presidencies of Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan . During

24180-417: The nominations and the committee supported Van Buren for renomination which was approved by acclamation. However, the vice-presidential nomination was left vacant due to opposition to Vice President Richard M. Johnson 's personal life. After the negative views of Freemasonry among a large segment of the public began to wane in the mid-1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party disintegrated. Many leaders began to move to

24375-534: The northeast of the Territory, which was already being attacked by the Indians. On September 18, 1812, Johnson's men reached Fort Wayne in time to save it, and turned back an Indian ambush. They returned to Kentucky and disbanded, going out of their way to burn Potawatomi villages along the Elkhart River en route. Johnson returned to his seat in Congress in the late fall of 1812. Based on his experience, he proposed

24570-404: The northeastern United States in 1833. Jackson's struggle with the Second Bank of the United States continued, as the president sought to remove federal funds from the bank. Though initially apprehensive of the removal due to congressional support for the bank, Van Buren eventually came to support Jackson's policy. He also helped undermine a fledgling alliance between Jackson and Daniel Webster ,

24765-478: The old per diem , thus forcing the new legislators to act on the matter if they wanted to get paid. Compensation for members of Congress remained on a per diem basis until an annual salary of $ 3,000 (~$ 77,714 in 2023) was prescribed in 1855. According to Edward J. McManus, who wrote Johnson's entry in the American National Biography , "Johnson, instead of defending the merits of the reform, avoided

24960-432: The one candidate who could beat Adams in the 1828 presidential election , and he worked to bring Crawford's former backers into line behind Jackson. He also forged alliances with other members of Congress opposed to Adams, including Vice President John C. Calhoun , Senator Thomas Hart Benton , and Senator John Randolph . Seeking to solidify his standing in New York and bolster Jackson's campaign, Van Buren helped arrange

25155-620: The original federal Constitution, state legislators, not the voters, elected U.S. senators, and the Kentucky General Assembly was to choose a replacement for outgoing senator Isham Talbot in December 1818. Johnson was considered a strong contender if he entered the race, and in October he let it be known through the press that he would accept the Senate seat if the General Assembly elected him. On December 18, 1818, legislators chose William Logan over Johnson, 67–55. Newspapers noted that

25350-496: The other War Hawks, though, he was initially unwilling to support increased taxes and borrowing to finance the construction of naval vessels. When Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against Britain in June 1812, Johnson voted in favor as the House passed the resolution, 79–49. Madison signed the declaration on June 18, 1812. For his fourth consecutive term from 1813 to 1815, he had secured one of Kentucky's at-large seats in

25545-457: The other hand, strongly preferred Johnson. Again, Jackson's considerable influence prevailed, and Johnson received the required two-thirds vote after New York Senator Silas Wright prevailed upon non-delegate Edward Rucker to cast the 15 votes of the absent Tennessee delegation in Johnson's favor. Van Buren's competitors in the election of 1836 were three members of the Whig Party, which remained

25740-450: The party's presidential nomination. The delegations of each state balloted separately before meeting together with the other representatives of the states. Clay initially led on the first ballot, but Harrison won on the final ballot with 148 votes compared to Clay's 90 votes and Scott's 16 votes after supporters from Scott switched to Harrison. John Tyler was selected as a factional and geographical balance to Harrison. Democratic members of

25935-582: The party's proposals as superior to any suggested by the Federalists , whom he saw as not acting in the best interests of the country. In 1809, Johnson supported Jefferson in adopting the administration's proposal to replace the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act , as the Embargo had proven ineffective except in causing a serious recession in the United States. Although Johnson is considered one of

26130-620: The party's vice presidential nominee. Van Buren won the nomination over Philip P. Barbour (Calhoun's favored candidate) and Richard Mentor Johnson due to the support of Jackson and the strength of the Albany Regency. Upon Van Buren's return from Europe in July ;1832, he became involved in the Bank War , a struggle over the renewal of the charter of the Second Bank of the United States . Van Buren had long been distrustful of banks, and he viewed

26325-456: The passage of the Tariff of 1828 , which opponents labeled as the "Tariff of Abominations". The tariff was intended to protect northern and western agricultural products from foreign competition, but the resulting tax on imports cut into the profits of New England businessmen, who imported raw materials including iron to make into finished goods for subsequent resale, as well as finished goods including clothing for distribution and resale throughout

26520-613: The plantation. This was further complicated by the fact that Chinn was still enslaved but supervised the work of slaves, which the Chinn family never sold or mortgaged off, but she did not have the power to "challenge the institution of slavery or overturn the government that supported it", she only had the power to gain some personal autonomy, with Johnson never legally emancipating her. This may have been because, as Snyder says, liberating her from human bondage would erode "ties that bound her to him" and keeping her enslaved supported his idea of being

26715-504: The policies of his predecessor. Additionally, Van Buren had helped select Jackson's cabinet appointees and enjoyed strong working relationships with them. Van Buren held regular formal cabinet meetings and discontinued the informal gatherings of advisors that had attracted so much attention during Jackson's presidency. He solicited advice from department heads, tolerated open and even frank exchanges between cabinet members, perceiving himself as "a mediator, and to some extent an umpire between

26910-500: The port of New Orleans and feared that the British would stir up another Indian war. The land war fought in the Northern United States pitted American troops against British forces and their Indian allies. Johnson recruited 300 men, divided into three companies , who elected him major . They merged with another battalion , forming a regiment of 500 men, with Johnson as colonel , with the merged volunteer forces becoming

27105-542: The position. The post ultimately went to Calhoun. The result was that Johnson became chair of the Committee on Expenditures where he wielded considerable influence over defense policy in the Department of War during the Fifteenth Congress . In 1817, Congress investigated General Andrew Jackson 's execution of two British subjects during the First Seminole War . Johnson chaired the inquiry committee. The majority of

27300-404: The presidency, and referred to him as "Granny", hinting that he was senile. Said one Democratic newspaper: "Give him a barrel of hard cider , and ... a pension of two thousand [dollars] a year ... and ... he will sit the remainder of his days in his log cabin." Whigs took advantage of this quip and declared that Harrison was "the log cabin and hard cider candidate", a man of the common people from

27495-499: The pressure of Johnson's attack, the Native American force broke and fled into the swamp, during which time Tecumseh was slain. The question of who shot and killed Tecumseh was highly controversial in Johnson's lifetime, as he was most often named as the shooter. Johnson himself did not publicly say that he had killed Tecumseh, stating that he had killed "a tall, good-looking Indian", but initial published accounts named him, and it

27690-490: The previous election along with Francis Granger for vice president) and Daniel Webster for vice president. However, when the Whig National Convention nominated Harrison with John Tyler as his running mate, the Anti-Masonic Party did not make an alternate nomination and ceased to function and was fully absorbed into the Whigs by 1840. James G. Birney , Myron Holley , Joshua Leavitt , and Gerrit Smith proposed

27885-492: The prospect of quick annexation , Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home. New England abolitionists charged that there was a " slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation. Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States. Boldly reversing Jackson's policies, Van Buren sought peace abroad and harmony at home. He proposed

28080-493: The region when he could take advantage of huge land grants. According to Miles Smith's doctoral thesis, "Richard developed a cheery disposition and seems to have been a generally happy and content child". Richard lived on the family plantation until he was 16. In 1796, he was sent briefly to a local grammar school, and then attended Transylvania University , the first college west of the Appalachian Mountains. While at

28275-499: The regulars were killed or captured. The Indians were a harder fight; they were out of the main field of battle, skirmishing on the edge of an adjacent swamp. Richard Johnson ordered a suicide squad of twenty men to charge with him and draw the Indians' fire, with the rest to attack as the Indians reloaded. But he was unable to push his troops through the enemy position due to the swampy ground. Johnson had to order his men to dismount and hold until Shelby's infantry came up. By then, under

28470-503: The rejection, but concern that it would precipitate a clash over the extension of slavery undoubtedly influenced Van Buren and continued to be the chief obstacle to annexation. Northern and Southern Democrats followed an unspoken rule: Northerners helped quash anti-slavery proposals and Southerners refrained from agitating for the annexation of Texas. Texas withdrew the annexation offer in 1838. Richard M. Johnson Richard Mentor Johnson (October 17, 1780  – November 19, 1850)

28665-510: The resignations of the anti-Eaton cabinet members. Postmaster General William T. Barry , who had sided with the Eatons in the Petticoat Affair, was the lone cabinet member to remain in office. The cabinet reorganization removed Calhoun's allies from the Jackson administration, and Van Buren had a major role in shaping the new cabinet. After leaving office, Van Buren continued to play a part in

28860-469: The rest of his life. In August 1814, British forces attacked Washington, D.C., and burned the White House and Capitol, and when Congress reconvened on September 19, with Johnson present, it was in temporary quarters. On September 22, Johnson moved for the appointment of a committee to look into why the British had been allowed to burn the city, and he was appointed as chairman. Johnson's committee compiled

29055-409: The rough-and-tumble West. They depicted Harrison's opponent, President Martin Van Buren , as a wealthy snob who was out of touch with the people. In fact, it was Harrison who came from a family of wealthy planters, while Van Buren's father was a tavernkeeper. Harrison however moved to the frontier and for years lived in a log cabin, while Van Buren had been a well-paid government official. Nonetheless,

29250-487: The scorn of neighbors and constituents. Later Johnson would provide for Adaline and Imogene's education. Both daughters married white men. Johnson gave them large farms as dowries from his own holdings. There is confusion about whether Adeline Chinn Scott had children; a 2007 account by the Scott County History Museum said she had at least one son, Robert Johnson Scott (with husband Thomas W. Scott) who became

29445-492: The second independent (after Washington) to serve as president. Van Buren would be the last incumbent president to lose his reelection bid in a general election until Grover Cleveland in 1888 . The first national convention of the Whig Party was called for by members of the party in Congress and it was attended by almost 250 delegates in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania . Henry Clay , William Henry Harrison, and Winfield Scott ran for

29640-459: The sound of firing, and dismount, surrounding the enemy when they got there. Between May and September, Johnson raided throughout the Northwest, burning the war supply centers of Indian villages, surrounding their fighting units and scattering them, killing some warriors each time. In September, Oliver Hazard Perry destroyed most of the British fleet at the Battle of Lake Erie , taking control of

29835-477: The state legislature picked another candidate for the Senate in 1828, forcing Johnson to leave in 1829, but his Congressional district voted for him and returned him to the House the same year. In 1836 , Johnson was the Democratic nominee for vice-president on a ticket with Martin Van Buren . Campaigning with the slogan "Rumpsey Dumpsey, Rumpsey Dumpsey, Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh", Johnson fell one short of

30030-448: The state legislature. Van Buren's victory resulted from a combination of his attractive political and personal qualities, Jackson's popularity and endorsement, the organizational power of the Democratic Party, and the inability of the Whig Party to muster an effective candidate and campaign. Despite their lack of organization, the Whigs came close to their goal of forcing the election into the House of Representatives, with Van Buren winning

30225-533: The state to represent various clients. In 1812, Van Buren won his party's nomination for a seat in the New York State Senate . Though several Democratic-Republicans, including John Peter Van Ness, joined with the Federalists to oppose his candidacy, Van Buren won election to the state senate in mid-1812. Later in the year, the United States entered the War of 1812 against Great Britain, while Clinton launched an unsuccessful bid to defeat President James Madison in

30420-419: The state's attorney general. In 1819, he played an active part in prosecuting the accused murderers of Richard Jennings, the first murder-for-hire case in the state of New York. After Tompkins was elected as vice president in the 1816 presidential election , Clinton defeated Van Buren's preferred candidate, Peter Buell Porter , in the 1817 New York gubernatorial election . Clinton threw his influence behind

30615-561: The supplies they used to wage war and could be decisively defeated. Johnson submitted this plan to President James Madison and Secretary of War John Armstrong , who approved it in principle. They referred the plan to Harrison, who found winter operations impracticable. Johnson was permitted to try the tactics in the summer of 1813; later, the US conducted Indian wars in winter with his strategy. Johnson left Washington, D.C., just before Congress adjourned. He raised one thousand men, nominally part of

30810-475: The tariff and internal improvements. The Secretary of State was instrumental in convincing Jackson to issue the Maysville Road veto , which both reaffirmed limited government principles and also helped prevent the construction of infrastructure projects that could potentially compete with New York's Erie Canal. He also became involved in a power struggle with Calhoun over appointments and other issues, including

31005-516: The three-way election, he defeated Congressman Sandford and James Moore. At the time of his election in August 1806, he did not meet the U.S. Constitution 's age requirement for service in the House (25), but by the time the congressional term began the following March, he had turned 25. He was re-elected and served six consecutive terms. During the first three terms from 1807 to 1813, he represented Kentucky's Fourth District . Johnson took his seat in

31200-583: The tie-breaking Senate vote for a bill to subject abolitionist mail to state laws, thus ensuring that its circulation would be prohibited in the South. Van Buren considered slavery to be immoral but sanctioned by the Constitution. Van Buren won the election with 764,198 popular votes, 50.9% of the total, and 170  electoral votes . Harrison led the Whigs with 73 electoral votes, White receiving 26, and Webster 14. Willie Person Mangum received South Carolina's 11 electoral votes, which were awarded by

31395-948: The time of his death. The court noted she was illegitimate, and so without rights in the case. Upon Johnson's death, the Fayette County Court found that "he left no widow, children, father, or mother living." It divided his estate between his living brothers, John and Henry. Bevins's account, written for the Georgetown & Scott County Museum, says that Adeline's son Robert Johnson Scott, her first cousin, Richard M. Johnson, Jr., and Imogene's family (husband Daniel Pence, first daughter Malvina and son-in-law Robert Lee, and second daughter and son-in-law Josiah Pence) "acquired" Johnson's remaining land after his death. After Chinn's death, Johnson began an intimate relationship with another family slave. When she left him for another man, Johnson had her picked up and sold at auction. Afterward he began

31590-458: The top three and were eligible for selection in the contingent election, New York's electors would help determine whether Clay or Crawford would finish third. Though most of the state's electoral votes went to Adams, Crawford won one more electoral vote than Clay in the state, and Clay's defeat in Louisiana left Crawford in third place. With Crawford still in the running, Van Buren lobbied members of

31785-546: The treaty. The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but in the fall, the Cherokee reluctantly agreed to transport themselves west. Some 20,000 people were relocated against their will during the Cherokee removal, part of the Trail of Tears . Notably, Ralph Waldo Emerson , who would go on to become America's foremost man of letters, wrote Van Buren

31980-600: The two that lasted for the duration of their careers. In 1818, Calhoun approved an expedition to build a military outpost near the present site of Bismarck, North Dakota on the Yellowstone River ; Johnson awarded the contract to his brother James. Although the Yellowstone Expedition was an ultimate failure and expensive to the U.S. Treasury, the Johnsons escaped political ill will in their home district because

32175-458: The venture was seen as a peacekeeping endeavor on the frontier. However, the Panic of 1819 caused Congress to investigate the Yellowstone matter, and in 1820, a report found that James Johnson had overcharged the government by $ 76,000. Richard and James Johnson, as well as other family members, remained in debt until 1824, when arrangements were made with the largest creditor, the Second Bank of

32370-611: The vice presidency in 1836. After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett , a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the Nullification Crisis . Van Buren's cabinet choices were criticized by Pennsylvanians such as James Buchanan , who argued that their state deserved a cabinet position as well as some Democrats who argued that Van Buren should have used his patronage powers to augment his power. However, Van Buren saw value in avoiding contentious patronage battles, and his decision to retain Jackson's cabinet made it clear that he intended to continue

32565-490: The victim of petty politics, Calhoun raised Van Buren in both Jackson's regard and the esteem of others in the Democratic Party. Far from ending Van Buren's career, Calhoun's action gave greater impetus to Van Buren's candidacy for vice president. Seeking to ensure that Van Buren would replace Calhoun as his running mate, Jackson had arranged for a national convention of his supporters. The May  1832 Democratic National Convention subsequently nominated Van Buren to serve as

32760-421: The vote on Van Buren's nomination was taken, enough pro-Calhoun Jacksonians refrained from voting to produce a tie, which allowed Calhoun to cast the deciding vote against Van Buren. Calhoun was elated, convinced that he had ended Van Buren's career. "It will kill him dead, sir, kill him dead. He will never kick, sir, never kick", Calhoun exclaimed to a friend. Calhoun's move backfired; by making Van Buren appear

32955-524: The wages. Within a week of the declaration of war, Johnson urged the House of Representatives to recommend the raising of troops in the western states, lest disaster befall settlers on the frontier. After the adjournment, Johnson returned to Kentucky to recruit volunteers. So many men responded that he chose only those with horses, and raised a body of mounted rifles. The War of 1812 was extraordinarily popular in Kentucky; Kentuckians depended on sea trade through

33150-470: The war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of New York Attorney General . Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of Albany , where he established a legal partnership with Benjamin Butler , and shared a house with political ally Roger Skinner . In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as

33345-544: The war continued, Johnson was ready to return to Kentucky to raise another military unit. With the end of the war, Johnson, who was made chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs, turned his legislative attention to issues such as securing pensions for widows and orphans and funding internal improvements in the West . There were widespread reports of Americans, including women and children, captured by Indians during

33540-568: The war, and Johnson used his congressional office to investigate these matters, and to try to secure the release of captives. Western Democratic-Republicans like Johnson strongly supported the military and urged aid for the veterans; in December 1815, Johnson introduced legislation for the "relief of the infirm, disabled, and superannuated officers and soldiers". Fearing that the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York produced dandies, not soldiers, Johnson expanded on

33735-543: The white and red man is incompatible with the safety or happiness of either", and also claimed the Cherokee had not protested their removal. President Jackson used the army to force Seminole Indians in Florida to move to the west. Many did surrender but they then escaped from detention camps. In December 1837, in the Second Seminole War the army launched a massive offensive, leading to the Battle of Lake Okeechobee and

33930-413: The winner, Thomas Sandford , and William Henry. At that time, following the inauguration of Thomas Jefferson in 1801, many young, democratically minded aspiring politicians were seeking office. While Jefferson and Johnson agreed on the need for greater democracy, Jefferson felt that the people should be led by the elite, such as himself, while Johnson took a more populist view. In 1804, Johnson ran for

34125-804: Was 24 years old and she was 23. She was his childhood sweetheart and a daughter of his maternal first cousin, Johannes Dircksen Hoes. She grew up in Valatie , and like Van Buren her home life was primarily Dutch; she spoke Dutch as her first language, and spoke English with a marked accent. The couple had six children, four of whom lived to adulthood: Abraham (1807–1873), unnamed daughter (stillborn around 1809), John (1810–1866), Martin Jr. (1812–1855), Winfield Scott (born and died in 1814), and Smith Thompson (1817–1876). Hannah contracted tuberculosis , and died in Kinderhook on February 5, 1819. Martin Van Buren never remarried. Upon returning to Kinderhook in 1803, Van Buren formed

34320-415: Was a slave. When Johnson was away from his Kentucky plantation, he authorized Chinn to manage his business affairs. She died in the widespread cholera epidemic that occurred in the summer of 1833. Johnson deeply grieved her loss. The relationship between Johnson and Chinn shows the contradictions within slavery at the time. There were certainly numerous examples that "kin could also be property". Johnson

34515-441: Was a war hero at the Battle of the Thames. By ... leading the suicide mission on horseback, more lives were saved than lost. Johnson was lucky to have been only wounded, since fifteen men died instantly during the charge." There are reports from Indians that support Johnson's account, but most were made decades after the battle, by which time the question of whether Johnson shot Tecumseh had become politically charged. Tecumseh

34710-510: Was always courteous in his treatment of opponents and showed no bitterness toward either Adams or Clay, and he voted to confirm Clay's nomination to the cabinet. At the same time, Van Buren opposed the Adams-Clay plans for internal improvements like roads and canals and declined to support U.S. participation in the Congress of Panama . Van Buren considered Adams's proposals to represent a return to

34905-418: Was an American lawyer, military officer and politician who served as the ninth vice president of the United States from 1837 to 1841 under President Martin Van Buren . He is the only vice president elected by the United States Senate under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment . Johnson also represented Kentucky in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate. He began and ended his political career in

35100-418: Was charged with adjudicating financial claims made by veterans of the Revolutionary War . He sought to influence the committee to grant the claim of Alexander Hamilton 's widow to wages which Hamilton had declined when serving under George Washington . Although Hamilton was a champion of the rival Federalist Party , Johnson had compassion for Hamilton's widow; before the end of his term, he secured payment of

35295-407: Was evident in Harrison's victories in New York, the president's home state, and in Tennessee, where Andrew Jackson himself had come out of retirement to stump for his former vice-president. This was the first time a Democratic president lost re-election, as well as the first of only two times (the other being 1980) that a Democratic president lost re-election and lost the popular vote. This was also

35490-448: Was inaugurated so he could accept appointment as Jackson's secretary of state. In the cabinet, Van Buren was a key Jackson advisor and built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party. He ultimately resigned to help resolve the Petticoat affair and briefly served as ambassador to Great Britain. At Jackson's behest, the 1832 Democratic National Convention nominated Van Buren for vice president, and he took office after

35685-417: Was introduced which would bar slavery in the territories north and west of Missouri, Johnson was assigned to a select committee of five senators to consider it. The Maine and Missouri questions had been combined into one bill; Johnson voted against an amendment to separate them, which was defeated. On February 17, the Senate voted to bar slavery outside Missouri in the part of the Louisiana Purchase north of

35880-407: Was legally Johnson's concubine, he began a long-term relationship with her and treated her as his common-law wife , which was legal in Kentucky at the time. They had two daughters together and she later became manager of his plantation. Both Johnson and Chinn championed the "notion of a diverse society" by their multi-racial, predominately white family. They were prohibited from marrying because she

36075-464: Was not until 1816 that another claimant, a man named David King, appeared. John Sugden, in his book on the Battle of the Thames, found that Johnson's "claim is surely the stronger". Jones suggested that the issue did not truly catch the public's attention until Johnson became a potential candidate for national office in the 1830s, and was promoted through such means as a campaign biography, stage play and song. In any event, he found, "Colonel Johnson truly

36270-466: Was one of only 14 military officers to be presented a sword by an act of Congress prior to the American Civil War. With the American success at the Battle of the Thames, the war in the northwest was effectively over. Although there was no organized resistance to his presence in Canada, Harrison withdrew to Detroit because of supply problems. Johnson remained, wounded, at Detroit as his men began their return to Kentucky. Once he had recovered enough to bear

36465-433: Was raised by the Johnson family. Celia Johnson later married Wesley Fancher, one of the men who served in Johnson's regiment at the Battle of the Thames. After his father died, Richard Johnson inherited Julia Chinn , an octoroon mixed-race woman (seven-eighths European and one-eighth African in ancestry), who was born into slavery around 1790. She had grown up in the Johnson household, where her mother served. Julia Chinn

36660-456: Was said to have been shot from a firearm pointed at a downward angle, as if from a horse, with a ball and three buckshot, which Johnson's pistol was said to be loaded with. Evidence that it was so loaded is lacking, and the angle of the wound did not exclude the possibility that he had been stooping when shot. Some accounts have muskets loaded with cartridges containing a ball and three buckshot being commonly carried by American soldiers, and whether

36855-442: Was serving in the legislature in Richmond, Virginia, as he had been elected to represent Fayette County . (Kentucky was part of Virginia until 1792.) Beginning in 1783, Kentucky was considered safe enough that settlers began to leave the fortified stations to establish farms. The Johnsons settled on the land Robert had purchased at Great Crossing . As a surveyor, he became successful through well-chosen land purchases and being in

37050-514: Was the daughter of Benjamin Chinn, who was living in Malden, Upper Canada, or London, Canada, and a sister of Daniel Chinn. An 1845 letter from Newton Craig, Keeper of the Penitentiary in Frankfort, Kentucky , to Daniel Chinn, mentions another brother of Julia Chinn named Marcellus, who accompanied Col. Johnson on his first electioneering tour for vice-presidency. Marcellus left Col. Johnson in New York, whereupon Col. Johnson tried to find Marcellus' whereabouts from Arthur Tappan, Esq. Though Chinn

37245-467: Was the only one where they won a majority of the popular vote. This was also the third rematch in American history. There was a census in 1840 and the sitting President lost reelection on a Census count year. In 1839, the Whigs held a national convention for the first time. The 1839 Whig National Convention saw 1836 nominee William Henry Harrison defeat former Secretary of State Henry Clay and General Winfield Scott . Van Buren faced little opposition at

37440-537: Was the third. Van Buren received a basic education at the village schoolhouse, and briefly studied Latin at the Kinderhook Academy and at Washington Seminary in Claverack . Van Buren was raised speaking primarily Dutch and learned English while attending school; he is the only president of the United States whose first language was not English. Also during his childhood, Van Buren learned at his father's inn how to interact with people from varied ethnic, income, and societal groups, which he used to his advantage as

37635-414: Was told of her actions during Simon Girty 's raid on Bryan's Station in August 1782. According to later reports, with Indian warriors hidden in the nearby woods and the community short on water, she led the women to a nearby spring, and the attackers allowed them to return to the fort with the water. Having the water helped the settlers beat off an attack made with flaming arrows. At the time, Robert Johnson

37830-417: Was unable to campaign during the election as he was in England until November. The Liberty Party received opposition from followers of William Lloyd Garrison and abolitionist Whigs. The Liberty Party received 7,453 votes. In the wake of the Panic of 1837 , Van Buren was widely unpopular, and Harrison, following Andrew Jackson 's strategy, ran as a war hero and man of the people while presenting Van Buren as

38025-401: Was unusual for being open about his relationship and treating Chinn as his common-law wife. He was heard to call her "my bride" on at least one occasion, and they acted like a married couple. According to oral tradition, other slaves at Great Crossings were said to work on their wedding. Chinn gradually gained more responsibilities. As she spent much of her time in the "plantation's big house",

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