Misplaced Pages

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98-596: A total of 15 Sirius aircraft were constructed in 1929 and 1930. The first and best known Sirius was bought by Lindbergh, and in 1931, as NR-211, it was retrofitted to be a float plane . Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh flew it to the Far East , where she wrote a book about their experiences there entitled North to the Orient . The aircraft was damaged in Hankou , China , when it accidentally capsized while being lowered off

196-411: A windsock beside a landing strip. Types of runway safety incidents include: The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. For a major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete . Although certain airports have used reinforcement in concrete pavements, this

294-480: A 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights. [REDACTED] There are three types of runways: Waterways may be unmarked or marked with buoys that follow maritime notation instead. For runways and taxiways that are permanently closed, the lighting circuits are disconnected. The runway threshold, runway designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated and yellow "Xs" are placed at each end of

392-488: A United States naval aviator in an M.5 The German aircraft manufacturing company Hansa-Brandenburg built flying boats starting with the model Hansa-Brandenburg GW in 1916, and had a degree of military success with their Hansa-Brandenburg W.12 two-seat floatplane fighter the following year, being the primary aircraft flown by Imperial Germany's maritime fighter ace, Friedrich Christiansen . The Austro-Hungarian firm Lohner-Werke began building flying boats, starting with

490-626: A Wright Model B floatplane, by Frank Coffyn in 1911. The Wright Brothers, widely celebrated for their breakthrough aircraft designs, were slower to develop a seaplane; Wilbur died in 1912, and the company was bogged down in lawsuits. However, by 1913, the Wright Brother company developed the Wright Model CH Flyer. In 1913, the Wright company also came out withe Wright Model G Aerboat, which was

588-455: A feature of both flying-boat hulls and seaplane floats. The resulting aircraft would be large enough to carry sufficient fuel to fly long distances and could berth alongside ships to take on more fuel. Porte then designed a similar hull for the larger Curtiss H-12 flying boat which, while larger and more capable than the H-4s, shared failings of a weak hull and poor water handling. The combination of

686-458: A five-seat Sanchez-Besa from 1 August 1912. The French Navy ordered its first floatplane in 1912. On May 10, 1912 Glenn L. Martin flew a homemade seaplane in California , setting records for distance and time. In 1911−12, François Denhaut constructed the first seaplane with a fuselage forming a hull, using various designs to give hydrodynamic lift at take-off. Its first successful flight

784-628: A glide." At Felixstowe, Porte made advances in flying-boat design and developed a practical hull design with the distinctive "Felixstowe notch". Porte's first design to be implemented in Felixstowe was the Felixstowe Porte Baby , a large, three-engined biplane flying boat, powered by one central pusher and two outboard tractor Rolls-Royce Eagle engines. Porte modified an H-4 with a new hull whose improved hydrodynamic qualities made taxiing, take-off and landing much more practical and called it

882-630: A hulled seaplane resulted in the 1913 Model E and Model F , which he called "flying-boats". In February 1911, the United States Navy took delivery of the Curtiss Model E and soon tested landings on and take-offs from ships, using the Curtiss Model D. There were experiments by aviators to adapt the Wright Model B to a water landing. The first motion picture recorded from an airplane was from

980-479: A landing site for the Space Shuttle . Takeoff and landing distances available are given using one of the following terms: There are standards for runway markings. There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the remaining distance of the runway in thousands of feet. For example,

1078-656: A member of the Royal Naval Air Service . Appointed Squadron Commander of Royal Navy Air Station Hendon , he soon convinced the Admiralty of the potential of flying boats and was put in charge of the naval air station at Felixstowe in 1915. Porte persuaded the Admiralty to commandeer (and later, purchase) the America and a sister craft from Curtiss. This was followed by an order for 12 more similar aircraft, one Model H-2 and

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1176-542: A periodic basis. Fields with very low traffic of light planes may use a sod surface. Some runways make use of salt flats. For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 to 48 in (25 to 122 cm), including subgrade. Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard ,

1274-574: A result of this action, British flying boats were dazzle-painted to aid identification in combat. The Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company independently developed its designs into the small Model F, the larger Model K (several of which were sold to the Russian Naval Air Service), and the Model C for the U.S. Navy. Curtiss, among others, also built the Felixstowe F.5 as the Curtiss F5L , based on

1372-514: A seaplane with an enclosed cabin (a first for the company);the chief engineer of this version was Grover Loening . In Britain, Captain Edward Wakefield and Oscar Gnosspelius began to explore the feasibility of flight from water in 1908. They decided to make use of Windermere in the Lake District , England's largest lake . The latter's first attempts to fly attracted large crowds, though

1470-415: A third parallel runway was opened at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport in 2000 to the south of existing 8R/26L—rather than confusingly becoming the "new" 8R/26L it was instead designated 7R/25L, with the former 8R/26L becoming 7L/25R and 8L/26R becoming 8/26. Suffixes may also be used to denote special use runways. Airports that have seaplane waterways may choose to denote the waterway on charts with

1568-509: A towed kite glider on floats. The first of his unpowered flights was 150 yards (140 m). He later built a powered floatplane in partnership with Louis Blériot , but the machine was unsuccessful. Other pioneers also attempted to attach floats to aircraft in Britain, Australia, France and the United States. On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre flew the first successful powered seaplane,

1666-445: Is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear . Some designs were made by a mixture of these two design theories. A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in

1764-463: Is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value . Experience has shown that the K values on which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures. The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It

1862-399: Is considered to have the longest takeoff distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger international airports. At sea level , 3,200 m (10,500 ft) can be considered an adequate length to land virtually any aircraft. For example, at O'Hare International Airport , when landing simultaneously on 4L/22R and 10/28 or parallel 9R/27L, it

1960-418: Is generally found to be unnecessary, with the exception of expansion joints across the runway where a dowel assembly, which permits relative movement of the concrete slabs, is placed in the concrete. Where it can be anticipated that major settlements of the runway will occur over the years because of unstable ground conditions, it is preferable to install asphalt concrete surface, as it is easier to patch on

2058-408: Is included for all ICAO and some U.S. military airports (such as Edwards Air Force Base ). However, most U.S.  civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield . This American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It

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2156-454: Is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind . Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways. Wind direction is given as the direction the wind is coming from : a plane taking off from runway 09 faces east, into an "east wind" blowing from 090°. Originally in the 1920s and 1930s, airports and air bases (particularly in

2254-567: Is routine for arrivals from East Asia , which would normally be vectored for 4L/22R (2,300 m (7,546 ft)) or 9R/27L (2,400 m (7,874 ft)) to request 28R (4,000 m (13,123 ft)). It is always accommodated, although occasionally with a delay. Another example is that the Luleå Airport in Sweden was extended to 3,500 m (11,483 ft) to allow any fully loaded freight aircraft to take off. These distances are also influenced by

2352-451: Is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When a runway designation does change, especially at major airports, it is often done at night, because taxiway signs need to be changed and the numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in

2450-836: Is sometimes used specifically to refer to a floatplane, rather than a flying boat. The word "seaplane" is used to describe two types of air/water vehicles: the floatplane and the flying boat . The term "seaplane" is used by some to mean "floatplane". This is the standard British usage. This article treats both flying boats and floatplanes as types of seaplane, in the US fashion. An amphibious aircraft can take off and land both on conventional runways and water. A true seaplane can only take off and land on water. There are amphibious flying boats and amphibious floatplanes, as well as some hybrid designs, e.g. , floatplanes with retractable floats. Modern (2019) production seaplanes range in size from flying-boat type light-sport aircraft amphibians, such as

2548-459: Is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 100,000 kg (220,000 lb). Larger aircraft including widebodies will usually require at least 2,400 m (7,900 ft) at sea level. International widebody flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 3,200 m (10,500 ft) or more and takeoff requirements of 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Boeing 747

2646-557: Is very common in a country such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04, and the pilot read back the clearance as runway 4. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U.S. usage to airports around the world. For example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Military airbases may include smaller paved runways known as "assault strips" for practice and training next to larger primary runways. These strips eschew

2744-604: The Dornier Wal in 1924. The enormous Do X was powered by 12 engines and carried 170 people. It flew across the Atlantic to the Americas in 1929, It was the largest flying boat of its time, but was severely underpowered and was limited by a very low operational ceiling. Only three were built, with a variety of engines installed, in an attempt to overcome the lack of power. Two of these were sold to Italy. The military value of flying boats

2842-479: The Felixstowe F.1 . Porte's innovation of the "Felixstowe notch" enabled the craft to overcome suction from the water more quickly and break free for flight much more easily. This made operating the craft far safer and more reliable. The "notch" breakthrough would soon after evolve into a "step", with the rear section of the lower hull sharply recessed above the forward lower hull section, and that characteristic became

2940-591: The Gnome Omega -powered hydravion , a trimaran floatplane . Fabre's first successful take off and landing by a powered seaplane inspired other aviators, and he designed floats for several other flyers. The first hydro-aeroplane competition was held in Monaco in March 1912, featuring aircraft using floats from Fabre, Curtiss, Tellier and Farman. This led to the first scheduled seaplane passenger services, at Aix-les-Bains , using

3038-620: The Icon A5 and AirMax SeaMax , to the 100,000 lb ShinMaywa US-2 and Beriev Be-200 multi-role amphibians. Examples in between include the Dornier Seastar flying-boat type, 12-seat, utility amphibian and the Canadair CL-415 amphibious water-bomber. The Viking Air DHC-6 Twin Otter and Cessna Caravan utility aircraft have landing gear options which include amphibious floats. Taking off on water

Lockheed Model 8 Sirius - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-582: The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft ". Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt , concrete , or a mixture of both) or a natural surface ( grass , dirt , gravel , ice , sand or salt ). Runways, taxiways and ramps , are sometimes referred to as "tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac . Takeoff and landing areas defined on

3234-607: The Lohner E in 1914 and the later (1915) widely copied Lohner L . In September 1919, British company Supermarine started operating the first flying-boat service in the world, from Woolston to Le Havre in France , but it was short-lived. A Curtiss NC-4 became the first airplane to fly across the Atlantic Ocean in 1919, crossing with multiple stops via the Azores . Of the four that made

3332-647: The Short S.8 Calcutta . In 1928, four Supermarine Southampton flying boats of the RAF Far East flight arrived in Melbourne , Australia . The flight was considered proof that flying boats had become a reliable means of long-distance transport. In the 1930s, flying boats made it possible to have regular air transport between the U.S. and Europe, opening up new air travel routes to South America, Africa, and Asia. Foynes , Ireland and Botwood , Newfoundland and Labrador were

3430-547: The Sopwith Aviation Company produced the "Bat Boat", an aircraft with a consuta laminated hull that could operate from land or on water, which today is called an amphibious aircraft . The "Bat Boat" completed several landings on sea and on land and was duly awarded the Mortimer Singer Prize . It was the first all-British aeroplane capable of making six return flights over five miles within five hours. In

3528-501: The aircraft carrier HMS Hermes , and had to be sent back to Lockheed to be repaired. In 1931, György Endresz and Sándor Magyar made a successful US–Hungary transatlantic flight with a Lockheed Sirius 8A aircraft named "Justice for Hungary". In 1933, the Lindberghs set out again with their Sirius, now upgraded with a more powerful engine, a new directional gyro, and an artificial horizon . This time, their route would take them across

3626-552: The fuselage in the interplane gap. Wingtip pontoons were attached directly below the lower wings near their tips. The design (later developed into the Model H ) resembled Curtiss's earlier flying boats but was built considerably larger so it could carry enough fuel to cover 1,100 mi (1,800 km). The three crew members were accommodated in a fully enclosed cabin. Trials of the America began 23 June 1914 with Porte also as Chief Test Pilot; testing soon revealed serious shortcomings in

3724-545: The 123-foot-span five-engined Felixstowe Fury triplane (also known as the "Porte Super-Baby" or "PSB"). F.2, F.3, and F.5 flying boats were extensively employed by the Royal Navy for coastal patrols and to search for German U-boats . In 1918, they were towed on lighters towards the northern German ports to extend their range; on 4 June 1918, this resulted in three F.2As engaging in a dogfight with ten German seaplanes, shooting down two confirmed and four probables at no loss. As

3822-417: The L series and progressing with the M series. The Macchi M.5 , in particular, was extremely manoeuvrable and agile and matched the land-based aircraft it had to fight. Two hundred forty-four were built in total. Towards the end of World War I, the aircraft were flown by Italian Navy Aviation, United States Navy and United States Marine Corps airmen. Ensign Charles Hammann won the first Medal of Honor awarded to

3920-521: The Short Empire flying boats was the strange-looking Maia and Mercury . It was a four-engined floatplane Mercury (the winged messenger) fixed on top of Maia , a heavily modified Short Empire flying boat. The larger Maia took off, carrying the smaller Mercury loaded to a weight greater than it could take off with. This allowed the Mercury to carry sufficient fuel for a direct trans-Atlantic flight with

4018-428: The US, Wanamaker's commission built on Glen Curtiss's previous development and experience with the Curtiss Model F for the U.S. Navy, which rapidly resulted in the America , designed under Porte's supervision following his study and rearrangement of the flight plan; the aircraft was a conventional biplane design with two-bay, unstaggered wings of unequal span with two pusher inline engines mounted side-by-side above

Lockheed Model 8 Sirius - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-646: The United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night. Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets , to the huge 11,917 m × 274 m (39,098 ft × 899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California – developed as

4214-461: The United Kingdom) were built in a triangle-like pattern of three runways at 60° angles to each other. The reason was that aviation was only starting, and although it was known that wind affected the runway distance required, not much was known about wind behaviour. As a result, three runways in a triangle-like pattern were built, and the runway with the heaviest traffic would eventually expand into

4312-419: The aircraft failed to take off and required a re-design of the floats incorporating features from the boat hulls of the lake's motor boat racing club member Isaac Borwick. Meanwhile, Wakefield ordered a floatplane similar to the design of the 1910 Fabre Hydravion. By November 1911, both Gnosspelius and Wakefield had aircraft capable of flight from water and awaited suitable weather conditions. Gnosspelius's flight

4410-551: The aircraft tyres. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA , or other aviation authority friction levels. Subsurface underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and reliable pavement performance. At the Hartsfield Atlanta, GA airport the underdrains usually consist of trenches 18 in (46 cm) wide and 48 in (120 cm) deep from

4508-447: The airport's main runway, while the other two runways would be either abandoned or converted into taxiways. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading in deca degrees . This heading differs from true north by the local magnetic declination . A runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to

4606-537: The ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this system results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L, and 7R, even though all four runways are actually parallel at approximately 69°. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport , there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, and 18R, all oriented at a heading of 175.4°. Occasionally, an airport with only three parallel runways may use different runway identifiers, such as when

4704-686: The attempt, only one completed the flight. In 1923, the first successful commercial flying-boat service was introduced, with flights to and from the Channel Islands . After frequent appeals by the industry for subsidies, the Government decided that nationalization was necessary and ordered five aviation companies to merge to form the state-owned Imperial Airways of London (IAL). IAL became the international flag-carrying British airline, providing flying-boat passenger and mail-transport links between Britain and South Africa and India using aircraft such as

4802-475: The considerable increase in the number and length of land-based runways during World War II. Further, as the speed and range of land-based aircraft increased, the commercial competitiveness of flying boats diminished; their design compromised aerodynamic efficiency and speed to accomplish the feat of waterborne takeoff and landing. Competing with new civilian jet aircraft like the de Havilland Comet and Boeing 707 proved impossible. Runway According to

4900-411: The construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area. Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, manufacturers aim to minimize aircraft stresses on the pavement. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of

4998-463: The design; it was under-powered, so the engines were replaced with more powerful tractor engines. There was also a tendency for the nose of the aircraft to try to submerge as engine power increased while taxiing on water. This phenomenon had not been encountered before, since Curtiss's earlier designs had not used such powerful engines nor large fuel/cargo loads and so were relatively more buoyant. In order to counteract this effect, Curtiss fitted fins to

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5096-447: The early accidents were attributable to a poor understanding of handling while in contact with the water, the pair's efforts went into developing practical hull designs to make the transatlantic crossing possible. The two years before World War I's breakout also saw the privately produced pair of Benoist XIV biplane flying boats, designed by Thomas W. Benoist , initiate the start of the first heavier-than-air airline service anywhere in

5194-834: The end of 1933, after 30,000 miles and 21 countries; droves of people turned out to greet them as they landed. The aircraft was in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City until 1955, when ownership was transferred to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio . It was given to the Smithsonian Institution in 1959, and it went on display at the National Air and Space Museum when

5292-399: The end of World War I. Another seventy were built, and these were followed by two F.2c, which were built at Felixstowe. In February 1917, the first prototype of the Felixstowe F.3 was flown. It was larger and heavier than the F.2, giving it greater range and heavier bomb load, but poorer agility. Approximately 100 Felixstowe F.3s were produced before the end of the war. The Felixstowe F.5

5390-507: The extra fuel load, they could make a direct trans-Atlantic flight. A Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow was used as the fuel tanker. The German Dornier Do X flying boat was noticeably different from its UK and U.S.-built counterparts. It had wing-like protrusions from the fuselage, called sponsons , to stabilize it on the water without the need for wing-mounted outboard floats. This feature was pioneered by Claudius Dornier during World War I on his Dornier Rs. I giant flying boat and perfected on

5488-711: The final Porte hull designs and powered by American Liberty engines . Meanwhile, the pioneering flying-boat designs of François Denhaut had been steadily developed by the Franco-British Aviation Company into a range of practical craft. Smaller than the Felixstowes, several thousand FBAs served with almost all of the Allied forces as reconnaissance craft, patrolling the North Sea, Atlantic and Mediterranean Oceans. In Italy, several seaplanes were developed, starting with

5586-475: The first patent for a flying machine with a boat hull and retractable landing gear in 1876, but Austrian Wilhelm Kress is credited with building the first seaplane, Drachenflieger , in 1898, although its two 30 hp (22 kW) Daimler engines were inadequate for take-off, and it later sank when one of its two floats collapsed. On 6 June 1905, Gabriel Voisin took off and landed on the River Seine with

5684-575: The following: According to Transport Canada 's regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, runway status lights , is currently being tested in the United States. The edge lights must be arranged such that: Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower , a flight service station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones ) are equipped with pilot-controlled lighting , so that pilots can temporarily turn on

5782-465: The investments in airports during the war but mainly because landplanes were less constrained by weather conditions that could result in sea states being too high to operate seaplanes while landplanes could continue to operate. In the 21st century, seaplanes maintain a few niche uses, such as for aerial firefighting , air transport around archipelagos, and access to undeveloped or roadless areas, some of which have numerous lakes. In British English, seaplane

5880-496: The lack of designated landing direction. If there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by appending left (L), center (C) and right (R) to the end of the runway number to identify its position (when facing its direction)—for example, runways one-five-left (15L), one-five-center (15C), and one-five-right (15R). Runway zero-three-left (03L) becomes runway two-one-right (21R) when used in

5978-432: The landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab. Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of

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6076-562: The largest aircraft built and flown by any of the Axis Powers . In November 1939, IAL was restructured into three separate companies: British European Airways , British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), and British South American Airways (which merged with BOAC in 1949), with the change being made official on 1 April 1940. BOAC continued to operate flying-boat services from the (slightly) safer confines of Poole Harbour during wartime, returning to Southampton in 1947. When Italy entered

6174-481: The latter are generally far larger and can carry far more. Seaplanes that can also take off and land on airfields are in a subclass called amphibious aircraft , or amphibians. Seaplanes were sometimes called hydroplanes , but currently this term applies instead to motor-powered watercraft that use the technique of hydrodynamic lift to skim the surface of water when running at speed. The use of seaplanes gradually tapered off after World War II, partially because of

6272-409: The lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light planes, there may be nothing more than

6370-446: The mail. Unfortunately, this was too complex, and the Mercury had to be returned from America by ship. The Mercury did set some distance records before in-flight refuelling was adopted. Sir Alan Cobham devised a method of in-flight refuelling in the 1930s. In the air, the Short Empire could be loaded with more fuel than it could take off with. Short Empire flying boats serving the trans-Atlantic crossing were refueled over Foynes; with

6468-458: The nearest 10°, this affects some runways sooner than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233°, it is designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changes downwards by 5 degrees to 228°, the runway remains Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226° (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224°, the runway becomes Runway 22. Because magnetic drift itself

6566-521: The need for "distinctly marked and carefully prepared landing places, [but] the preparing of the surface of reasonably flat ground [is] an expensive undertaking [and] there would also be a continuous expense for the upkeep." For fixed-wing aircraft , it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed . Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that

6664-581: The new Porte-designed hull, this time fitted with two steps, with the wings of the H-12 and a new tail, and powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle engines, was named the Felixstowe F.2 and first flew in July 1916, proving greatly superior to the Curtiss on which it was based. It was used as the basis for all future designs. It entered production as the Felixstowe F.2A, being used as a patrol aircraft, with about 100 being completed by

6762-581: The north (360° rather than 0°). When taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane is heading around 90° (east). A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each direction separately: e.g., "runway 15" in one direction is "runway 33" when used in the other. The two numbers differ by 18 (= 180°). For clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually: runway one-five, runway three-three, etc. (instead of "fifteen" or "thirty-three"). A leading zero, for example in "runway zero-six" or "runway zero-one-left",

6860-661: The northern Atlantic , with no particular destination, but primarily to scout for potential new airline routes for Pan Am . While at a refueling stop in Angmagssalik , Greenland , the Inuit of the area gave the Sirius a nickname, " Tingmissartoq " or "one who flies like a bird". They continued on their flight and made many stops in Europe , Russia , then south to Africa , back across the southern Atlantic to Brazil and back over New York City at

6958-589: The opposite direction (derived from adding 18 to the original number for the 180° difference when approaching from the opposite direction). In some countries, regulations mandate that where parallel runways are too close to each other, only one may be used at a time under certain conditions (usually adverse weather ). At large airports with four or more parallel runways (for example, at Chicago O'Hare , Los Angeles , Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County , Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta , Denver , Dallas–Fort Worth and Orlando ), some runway identifiers are shifted by 1 to avoid

7056-467: The original facility opened on the National Mall in 1976. Data from Lockheed Aircraft since 1913 General characteristics Performance Sea plane A seaplane is a powered fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing (alighting) on water. Seaplanes are usually divided into two categories based on their technological characteristics: floatplanes and flying boats ;

7154-566: The performance, twenty of the modified JRM-1 Mars were ordered. The first, named Hawaii Mars , was delivered in June 1945, but the Navy scaled back their order at the end of World War II, buying only the five aircraft which were then on the production line. The five Mars were completed, and the last delivered in 1947. After World War II, the use of flying boats rapidly declined for several reasons. The ability to land on water became less of an advantage owing to

7252-541: The prize should go to an American aircraft and commissioned the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company to design and build an aircraft capable of making the flight. Curtiss's development of the Flying Fish flying boat in 1913 brought him into contact with John Cyril Porte , a retired Royal Navy Lieutenant, aircraft designer and test pilot who was to become an influential British aviation pioneer. Recognising that many of

7350-497: The remaining as Model H-4s . Four examples of the latter were assembled in the UK by Saunders . All of these were similar to the design of the America and, indeed, were all referred to as America s in Royal Navy service. The engines, however, were changed from the under-powered 160 hp Curtiss engines to 250 hp Rolls-Royce Falcon engines. The initial batch was followed by an order for 50 more (totalling 64 Americas overall during

7448-478: The runway grade (slope) such that, for example, each 1 percent of runway down slope increases the landing distance by 10 percent. An aircraft taking off at a higher altitude must do so at reduced weight due to decreased density of air at higher altitudes, which reduces engine power and wing lift. An aircraft must also take off at a reduced weight in hotter or more humid conditions (see density altitude ). Most commercial aircraft carry manufacturer's tables showing

7546-406: The runway and at 1,000 ft (305 m) intervals. A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path . Runway lighting is used at airports during periods of darkness and low visibility. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A runway may have some or all of

7644-406: The sides of the bow to add hydrodynamic lift, but soon replaced these with sponsons , a type of underwater pontoon mounted in pairs on either side of a hull. These sponsons (or their engineering equivalents) and the flared, notched hull would remain a prominent feature of flying-boat hull design in the decades to follow. With the problem resolved, preparations for the crossing resumed. While the craft

7742-623: The standard numerical naming convention and instead employ the runway's full three digit heading; examples include Dobbins Air Reserve Base 's Runway 110/290 and Duke Field 's Runway 180/360. Runways with non-hard surfaces, such as small turf airfields and waterways for seaplanes , may use the standard numerical scheme or may use traditional compass point naming, examples include Ketchikan Harbor Seaplane Base 's Waterway E/W. Airports with unpredictable or chaotic water currents, such as Santa Catalina Island 's Pebbly Beach Seaplane Base, may designate their landing area as Waterway ALL/WAY to denote

7840-414: The suffix T; this is advantageous for certain airfields in the far north such as Thule Air Base (08T/26T). Runway designations may change over time because Earth's magnetic lines slowly drift on the surface and the magnetic direction changes. Depending on the airport location and how much drift occurs, it may be necessary to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to

7938-567: The suffix W; such as Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu and Lake Hood Seaplane Base in Anchorage . Small airports that host various forms of air traffic may employ additional suffixes to denote special runway types based on the type of aircraft expected to use them, including STOL aircraft (S), gliders (G), rotorcraft (H), and ultralights (U). Runways that are numbered relative to true north rather than magnetic north will use

8036-585: The surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways . Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide , except in North America where feet are commonly used. In 1916, in a World War I war effort context, the first concrete-paved runway was built in Clermont-Ferrand in France , allowing local company Michelin to manufacture Bréguet Aviation military aircraft. In January 1919, aviation pioneer Orville Wright underlined

8134-441: The susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave , this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action . Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with

8232-494: The terminals for many early transatlantic flights. In areas where there were no airfields for land-based aircraft, flying boats could stop at small river, lake or coastal stations to refuel and resupply. The Pan Am Boeing 314 "Clipper" flying boats brought new exotic destinations like the Far East within reach and came to represent the romance of flight. By 1931, mail from Australia was reaching Britain in 16 days, or less than half

8330-448: The time taken by sea. In that year, government tenders on both sides of the world invited applications to run new passenger and mail services between the ends of the Empire, and Qantas and IAL were successful with a joint bid. A company under combined ownership was then formed, Qantas Empire Airways. The new ten-day service between Rose Bay, New South Wales , (near Sydney ) and Southampton

8428-547: The top of the pavement. A perforated plastic tube (5.9 in (15 cm) in diameter) is placed at the bottom of the ditch. The ditches are filled with gravel size crushed stone. Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure. In aviation charts, the surface type is usually abbreviated to a three-letter code. The most common hard surface types are asphalt and concrete. The most common soft surface types are grass and gravel. A runway of at least 1,800 m (5,900 ft) in length

8526-577: The vast distances of the Pacific Theater and Atlantic . They also sank numerous submarines and found enemy ships. In May 1941, the German battleship Bismarck was discovered by a PBY Catalina flying out of Castle Archdale Flying boat base , Lower Lough Erne , Northern Ireland. The largest flying boat of the war was the Blohm & Voss BV 238 , which was also the heaviest plane to fly during World War II and

8624-636: The war in June 1940, the Mediterranean was closed to Allied planes and BOAC and Qantas operated the Horseshoe Route between Durban and Sydney using Short Empire flying boats. The Martin Company produced the prototype XPB2M Mars based on their PBM Mariner patrol bomber, with flight tests between 1941 and 1943. The Mars was converted by the Navy into a transport aircraft designated the XPB2M-1R. Satisfied with

8722-568: The war). Porte also acquired permission to modify and experiment with the Curtiss aircraft. The Curtiss H-4s were soon found to have a number of problems; they were underpowered, their hulls were too weak for sustained operations, and they had poor handling characteristics when afloat or taking off. One flying boat pilot, Major Theodore Douglas Hallam, wrote that they were "comic machines, weighing well under two tons; with two comic engines giving, when they functioned, 180 horsepower; and comic control, being nose heavy with engines on and tail heavy in

8820-575: The world, and the first airline service of any kind at all in the United States. At the same time, the British boat-building firm J. Samuel White of Cowes on the Isle of Wight set up a new aircraft division and produced a flying boat in the United Kingdom. This was displayed at the London Air Show at Olympia in 1913. In that same year, a collaboration between the S. E. Saunders boatyard of East Cowes and

8918-567: Was attempted by some early flight attempts, but water take off and landing began in earnest in the 1910s and seaplanes pioneered transatlantic routes, and were used in World War I. They continued to develop before World War II, and had widespread use. After World War II, the creation of so many land airstrips meant water landings began to drift into special applications. They continued in niches such as access in remote areas, forest fire fighting, and maritime patrol. The Frenchman Alphonse Pénaud filed

9016-404: Was found to handle "heavily" on takeoff, and required rather longer take-off distances than expected, the full moon on 5 August 1914 was selected for the trans-Atlantic flight; Porte was to pilot the America with George Hallett as co-pilot and mechanic. Curtiss and Porte's plans were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. Porte sailed for England on 4 August 1914 and rejoined the Navy as

9114-519: Was intended to combine the good qualities of the F.2 and F.3, with the prototype first flying in May 1918. The prototype showed superior qualities to its predecessors but, to ease production, the production version was modified to make extensive use of components from the F.3, which resulted in lower performance than the F.2A or F.5. Porte's final design at the Seaplane Experimental Station was

9212-451: Was on 13 April 1912. Throughout 1910 and 1911, American pioneering aviator Glenn Curtiss developed his floatplane into the successful Curtiss Model D land-plane, which used a larger central float and sponsons. Combining floats with wheels, he made the first amphibian flights in February 1911 and was awarded the first Collier Trophy for US flight achievement. From 1912, his experiments with

9310-466: Was short-lived, as the aircraft crashed into the lake. Wakefield's pilot, however, taking advantage of a light northerly wind, successfully took off and flew at a height of 50 feet (15 m) to Ferry Nab, where he made a wide turn and returned for a perfect landing on the lake's surface. In Switzerland, Émile Taddéoli equipped the Dufaux 4 biplane with swimmers and successfully took off in 1912. A seaplane

9408-399: Was such a success that the volume of mail soon exceeded aircraft storage space. A solution was found by the British government, who had requested Short Brothers to design a large long-range monoplane for IAL in 1933. Partner Qantas purchased six Short Empire flying boats. Delivering the mail as quickly as possible generated a lot of competition and some innovative designs. One variant of

9506-624: Was used during the Balkan Wars in 1913, when a Greek "Astra Hydravion" did a reconnaissance of the Turkish fleet and dropped four bombs. In 1913, the Daily Mail newspaper put up a £10,000 prize for the first non-stop aerial crossing of the Atlantic , which was soon "enhanced by a further sum" from the Women's Aerial League of Great Britain . American businessman Rodman Wanamaker became determined that

9604-466: Was well-recognized, and every country bordering on water operated them in a military capacity at the outbreak of the war. They were utilized in various tasks from anti-submarine patrol to air-sea rescue and gunfire spotting for battleships. Aircraft such as the PBM Mariner patrol bomber, PBY Catalina , Short Sunderland , and Grumman Goose recovered downed airmen and operated as scout aircraft over

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