The Llapi River is a river in the north-eastern part of Kosovo . The 72 km (45 mi) long right tributary to the Sitnica river, it is the main river in the Llap (region) depression.
67-628: The etymology of the river's name is derived from a pre-Slavic form Alb that underwent linguistic metathesis within Slavic giving the final form as Lab . The name of the river was first used in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, but has been preserved in the New Age. Many scholars take the hydronym Lab as ancient and derive it from an alb-, from which lab-, alp- could come. The phonetic form for Albanian speakers
134-453: A /dʒənmə/ > Urdu جنم and Hindi जनम ja n a m /dʒənəm/ "Birth" More examples In case of a narrow range of Hungarian nouns, metathesis of a h sound and a liquid consonant occurs in nominative case , but the original form is preserved in accusative and other suffixed forms: The other instances are boholy [intestinal] villus/fluff/fuzz/nap vs. bolyhok , moholy vs. molyhos down/pubescence [on plants], and
201-446: A constituent is a word or a group of words that function as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. The constituent structure of sentences is identified using tests for constituents . These tests apply to a portion of a sentence, and the results provide evidence about the constituent structure of the sentence. Many constituents are phrases . A phrase is a sequence of one or more words (in some theories two or more) built around
268-526: A head lexical item and working as a unit within a sentence. A word sequence is shown to be a phrase/constituent if it exhibits one or more of the behaviors discussed below. The analysis of constituent structure is associated mainly with phrase structure grammars , although dependency grammars also allow sentence structure to be broken down into constituent parts. Tests for constituents are diagnostics used to identify sentence structure. There are numerous tests for constituents that are commonly used to identify
335-551: A Form X verbal noun). Perhaps the clearest example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic is the modern name of the city of Alexandria : ( Al- ) Iskandariya ( الإسكندرية ). In addition to the metathesis of x /ks/ to /sk/, the initial Al of Alexandria has been reanalyzed as the Arabic definite article. Metathesis is responsible for some common speech errors , such as children acquiring spaghetti as pasketti . The word ask has
402-401: A constituent. Another problem is that the test can at times suggest that a discontinuous word combination is a constituent, e.g.: In this case, it appears as though the elided material corresponds to the discontinuous word combination including help and in the office . Pseudoclefting is similar to clefting in that it puts emphasis on a certain phrase in a sentence. There are two variants of
469-399: A definite proform like it , he , there , here , etc. in place of a phrase or a clause. If such a change yields a grammatical sentence where the general structure has not been altered, then the test string is likely a constituent: These examples suggest that Drunks , the customers , and put off the customers in the test sentence are constituents. An important aspect of the proform test
536-408: A modal adverb can be added as well (e.g. certainly ): These examples suggest that the customers and put off the customers are constituents in the test sentence. Topicalization is like many of the other tests in that it identifies phrasal constituents only. When the test sequence is a sub-phrasal string, topicalization fails: These examples demonstrate that customers , could , put , off , and
603-406: A pre-specified initial and final location in reference to the body of the person signing (such as the signs RESTAURANT, PARENT, or TWINS) can have the order of these two locations reversed in contexts which seem to be purely phonological. While not possible with all signs, this does happen with quite a few. For example, the sign DEAF, prototypically made with the "1" handshape making contact first with
670-489: A regular part of their grammar, such as Hebrew and Fur . The process of metathesis has altered the shape of many familiar words in English as well. The original form before metathesis may be deduced from older forms of words in the language's lexicon or, if no forms are preserved, from phonological reconstruction . In some cases it is not possible to settle with certainty on the original version. Dionysius of Halicarnassus
737-402: A sentence. Strings that can be elided are deemed constituents: The symbol ∅ is used in the following examples to mark the position of ellipsis: These examples suggest that put off is not a constituent in the test sentence, but that immediately put off the customers , put off the customers when they arrive , and immediately put off the customers when they arrive are constituents. Concerning
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#1733092702999804-417: A single test does not mean that the test string is not a constituent, and conversely, passing a single test does not necessarily mean the test string is a constituent. It is best to apply as many tests as possible to a given string in order to prove or to rule out its status as a constituent. The 15 tests are introduced, discussed, and illustrated below mainly relying on the same one sentence: By restricting
871-603: A single wh-word (e.g. who , what , where , etc.). If the test string can then appear alone as the answer to such a question, then it is likely a constituent in the test sentence: These examples suggest that Drunks , the customers , and put off the customers are constituents in the test sentence. The answer fragment test is like most of the other tests for constituents in that it does not identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents: These answer fragments are all grammatically unacceptable, suggesting that could , put , off , and customers are not constituents. Note as well that
938-422: A test for constituents is the fact that it at times suggests that non-string word combinations are constituents, e.g. The word combination consisting of both loyal customers and who we rely on is discontinuous in the test sentence, a fact that should motivate one to generally question the value of one -substitution as a test for constituents. The answer fragment test involves forming a question that contains
1005-418: A test for constituents. The discussion of the other tests for constituents below reveals that this skepticism is warranted, since coordination identifies many more strings as constituents than the other tests for constituents. Proform substitution, or replacement, involves replacing the test string with the appropriate proform (e.g. pronoun, pro-verb, pro-adjective, etc.). Substitution normally involves using
1072-490: A word or of words in a sentence. Most commonly, it refers to the interchange of two or more contiguous segments or syllables, known as adjacent metathesis or local metathesis : Metathesis may also involve interchanging non-contiguous sounds, known as nonadjacent metathesis , long-distance metathesis , or hyperthesis , as shown in these examples of metathesis sound change from Latin to Spanish: Many languages have words that show this phenomenon, and some even use it as
1139-529: Is [säɲo] , which is the base for "Tuesday" [maksäɲo] , which is often metathesized as [maskäɲo] . All of these examples show a pair of consonants reversed so that the stop begins the next syllable. Metathesis among neighbouring consonants happens very commonly in Azerbaijani: Some common nonstandard pronunciations of Danish words employ metathesis: But metathesis has also historically changed some words: A common example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic
1206-553: Is Llap. In the Middle Ages, the form Lapia is found. Near its origin are the remains of one of the medieval palaces of Serbian King Milutin (1282-1321) called Vrhlab. Ottoman writer Evliya Celebi mentioned the Llapi river as having "its source in Albania" and joining other rivers before flowing into the Danube , during one of his travels to Kosovo in the 1660s. The Llapi River originates in
1273-583: Is a metathesis of mendikai borrowed from Tamil : கொம்மட்டிக்காய் , romanized: kommaṭṭikkāy . In Navajo , verbs have (often multiple) morphemes prefixed onto the verb stem. These prefixes are added to the verb stem in a set order in a prefix positional template. Although prefixes are generally found in a specific position, some prefixes change order by the process of metathesis. For example, prefix a- (3i object pronoun) usually occurs before di- , as in However, when a- occurs with
1340-420: Is a verb). The test is limited in its applicability, though, precisely because it is only applicable to strings containing verbs: The 'a' example suggests that put off the customers is a constituent in the test sentence, whereas the b example fails to suggest that could put off the customers is a constituent, for do so cannot include the meaning of the modal verb could . To illustrate more completely how
1407-480: Is around 9–12 meters at the hydrometric point in Lluzhan and it has a depth up to 1.2 m (3.9 ft), that varies based on the season and the location. Metathesis (linguistics) Metathesis ( / m ə ˈ t æ θ ə s ɪ s / mə- TATH -ə-siss ; from Greek μετάθεσις , from μετατίθημι "to put in a different order"; Latin : transpositio ) is the transposition of sounds or syllables in
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#17330927029991474-466: Is deemed a constituent. Since one is a type of pronoun, one -substitution is only of value when probing the structure of noun phrases. In this regard, the test sentence from above is expanded in order to better illustrate the manner in which one-substitution is generally employed: These examples suggest that customers , loyal customers , customers around here , loyal customers around here , and customers around here who we rely on are constituents in
1541-400: Is seen in a fuller sentence such as You met them in the cafe because you had time, and we did so in the pub . In this case, the preferred reading of did so is that it indeed simultaneously stands in for both met them and because we had time . The one -substitution test replaces the test string with the indefinite pronoun one or ones . If the result is acceptable, then the test string
1608-448: Is that proform substitution using a definite proform identifies phrasal constituents only; it fails to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents. Topicalization involves moving the test string to the front of the sentence. It is a simple movement operation. Many instances of topicalization seem only marginally acceptable when taken out of context. Hence to suggest a context, an instance of topicalization can be preceded by ...and and
1675-405: Is the fact that it fails to identify most subphrasal strings as constituents, e.g. These examples suggest that the individual words could , put , off , and customers should not be viewed as constituents. This suggestion is of course controversial, since most theories of syntax assume that individual words are constituents by default. The conclusion one can reach based on such examples, however,
1742-452: Is very difficult there to even discern how one should delimit the conjuncts of the coordinate structure. The coordinate structures in (k-l) are sometimes characterized in terms of non-constituent conjuncts (NCC), and the instance of coordination in sentence (m) is sometimes discussed in terms of stripping and/or gapping . Due to the difficulties suggested with examples (h-m), many grammarians view coordination skeptically regarding its value as
1809-430: Is when the order of the word's root consonants has changed. The following examples of metathesis have been identified in Egyptian Arabic texts, but are not necessarily more common than their etymological spellings: The following loanwords are also sometimes found with metathesis: The likely cause for metathesis in the word "hospital" is that the result resembles a common word pattern familiar to Arabic speakers (namely
1876-440: The do so test is employed, another test sentence is now used, one that contains two post-verbal adjunct phrases: These data suggest that met them , met them in the pub , and met them in the pub because we had time are constituents in the test sentence. Taken together, such examples seem to motivate a structure for the test sentence that has a left-branching verb phrase, because only a left-branching verb phrase can view each of
1943-419: The fail the topicalization test. Since these strings are all sub-phrasal, one can conclude that topicalization is unable to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents. Do-so -substitution is a test that substitutes a form of do so ( does so , did so , done so , doing so ) into the test sentence for the target string. This test is widely used to probe the structure of strings containing verbs (because do
2010-493: The right node raising (RNR) mechanism. The problem for the coordination test represented by examples (h-j) is compounded when one looks beyond the test sentence, for one quickly finds that coordination suggests that a wide range of strings are constituents that most theories of syntax do not acknowledge as such, e.g. The strings from home on Tuesday and from home on Tuesday on his bicycle are not viewed as constituents in most theories of syntax, and concerning sentence (m), it
2077-407: The , the customers , and put off the customers . The second tree, which shows the constituent structure according to phrase structure grammar , marks the following words and word combinations as constituents: Drunks , could , put , off , the , customers , the customers , put off the customers , and could put off the customers . The analyses in these two tree diagrams provide orientation for
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2144-466: The active sentence is changed to the subject of the corresponding passive sentence: The fact that sentence (b), the passive sentence, is acceptable, suggests that Drunks and the customers are constituents in sentence (a). The passivization test used in this manner is only capable of identifying subject and object words, phrases, and clauses as constituents. It does not help identify other phrasal or sub-phrasal strings as constituents. In this respect,
2211-450: The cheek and then moving to contact the jaw (as in the sentence FATHER DEAF), can have these locations reversed if the preceding sign, when part of the same constituent , has a final location more proximal to the jaw (as in the sentence MOTHER DEAF). Both forms of the sign DEAF are acceptable to native signers. A proposed prerequisite for metathesis to apply in ASL is that both signs must be within
2278-402: The choice of adverb. For instance, manner adverbs distribute differently than modal adverbs and will hence suggest a distinct constituent structure from that suggested by modal adverbs. Wh-fronting checks to see if the test string can be fronted as a wh-word. This test is similar to the answer fragment test insofar it employs just the first half of that test, disregarding the potential answer to
2345-414: The constituent structure of the sentence. A given node in a tree diagram is understood as marking a constituent, that is, a constituent is understood as corresponding to a given node and everything that that node exhaustively dominates. Hence the first tree, which shows the constituent structure according to dependency grammar , marks the following words and word combinations as constituents: Drunks , off ,
2412-534: The constituents of English sentences. 15 of the most commonly used tests are listed next: 1) coordination (conjunction), 2) pro-form substitution (replacement), 3) topicalization (fronting), 4) do-so -substitution, 5) one -substitution, 6) answer ellipsis (question test), 7) clefting , 8) VP-ellipsis , 9) pseudoclefting, 10) passivization, 11) omission (deletion), 12) intrusion, 13) wh-fronting, 14) general substitution, 15) right node raising (RNR). The order in which these 15 tests are listed here corresponds to
2479-418: The customers are constituents in the test sentence. Pseudoclefting fails to identify most individual words as constituents: The pseudoclefting test is hence like most of the other tests insofar as it identifies phrasal strings as constituents, but does not suggest that sub-phrasal strings are constituents. Passivization involves changing an active sentence to a passive sentence, or vice versa. The object of
2546-405: The customers are not constituents. Example (d) suggests that Drunks could put off and the customers are not constituents. And example (e) suggests that Drunks could put off the and customers are not constituents. Those that employ the intrusion test usually use a modal adverb like definitely . This aspect of the test is problematic, though, since the results of the test can vary based upon
2613-479: The discussion of tests for constituents that now follows. The coordination test assumes that only constituents can be coordinated, i.e., joined by means of a coordinator such as and , or , or but : The next examples demonstrate that coordination identifies individual words as constituents: The square brackets mark the conjuncts of the coordinate structures. Based on these data, one might assume that drunks , could , put off , and customers are constituents in
2680-508: The early Middle English Period: "nosþyrlu" ( c. 1050); "nos-thirlys" ( c. 1500). In 1565 "nosthrille" appears; "thirl"/"thurl" survived even longer, until 1878). Metathesis is also a common feature of the West Country dialects . In the Kurdish language, there are many examples of metathesis, as both forms are used until now, the pre-inverted form and the post-inverted form (depending on
2747-553: The first consonant of the root is an alveolar or postalveolar fricative. Namely, the pattern hiṯ1a22ē3 (where the numbers signify the root consonants) becomes hi1ta22ē3 . Examples: Hebrew also features isolated historical examples of metathesis. For example, the words כֶּֽבֶשׂ keves and כֶּֽשֶׂב kesev (meaning "lamb") both appear in the Torah. Like many other natural languages Urdu and Hindi also have metathesis like in this diachronic example: Sanskrit जन्म ( جنمہ ) ja nm
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2814-535: The frequency of use, coordination being the most frequently used of the 15 tests and RNR being the least frequently used. A general word of caution is warranted when employing these tests, since they often deliver contradictory results. The tests are merely rough-and-ready tools that grammarians employ to reveal clues about syntactic structure. Some syntacticians even arrange the tests on a scale of reliability, with less-reliable tests treated as useful to confirm constituency though not sufficient on their own. Failing to pass
2881-404: The indicated strings as a constituent. There is a problem with this sort of reasoning, however, as the next example illustrates: In this case, did so appears to stand in for the discontinuous word combination consisting of met them and because we had time . Such a discontinuous combination of words cannot be construed as a constituent. That such an interpretation of did so is indeed possible
2948-423: The individual words could , put , off , the , and customers are not constituents, contrary to what most theories of syntax assume. In this respect, clefting is like many of the other tests for constituents in that it only succeeds at identifying certain phrasal strings as constituents. The VP-ellipsis test checks to see which strings containing one or more predicative elements (usually verbs) can be elided from
3015-461: The introduction and discussion of the tests for constituents below mainly to this one sentence, it becomes possible to compare the results of the tests. To aid the discussion and illustrations of the constituent structure of this sentence, the following two sentence diagrams are employed (D = determiner, N = noun, NP = noun phrase, Pa = particle, S = sentence, V = Verb, VP = verb phrase): [REDACTED] These diagrams show two potential analyses of
3082-400: The latter two questions themselves are ungrammatical. It is apparently often impossible to form the question in a way that could successfully elicit the indicated strings as answer fragments. The conclusion, then, is that the answer fragment test is like most of the other tests in that it fails to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents. Clefting involves placing the test string X within
3149-579: The metathetized form: Sporadic examples include the word vih r eä "green", which derives from older vihe r ä , and the vernacular change of the word j uo heva "jovial" to j ou heva (also a separate word meaning "bristly"). Etymological metathesis occurs in the following French words: Deliberate metathesis also occurs extensively in the informal French pattern of speech called verlan (itself an example: verlan < l'envers , meaning "the reverse" or "the inverse"). In verlan new words are created from existing words by reversing
3216-1082: The nonstandard variant ax pronounced /æks/ ; the spelling ask is found in Shakespeare and in the King James Bible and ax in Chaucer, Caxton, and the Coverdale Bible . The word "ask" derives from Proto-Germanic *aiskōną . Some other frequent English pronunciations that display metathesis are: The process has shaped many English words historically. Bird and horse came from Old English bridd and hros ; wasp and hasp were also written wæps and hæps . The Old English beorht "bright" underwent metathesis to bryht , which became Modern English bright . The Old English þrēo "three" formed þridda "thrid" and þrēotene "thriteen". These underwent metathesis to forms which became Modern English third and thirteen . The Old English verb wyrċan "to work" had
3283-456: The northernmost village of Podujevë , Murgull , 744.2 m (2,442 ft) with a secondary source in the village of Pollatë . After descending from the mountains, it flows southward through Podujevë . Close to Pristina and Obiliq , the river turns westwards of its origin and joins the Sitnica river , in the village of Lumadh . The width of the river changes due to the dynamics of rivers, it
3350-456: The obsolete vehem animal's fetus (cf. vemhes "pregnant [animal]"). The first of them is often used in the regular form ( bolyh ). The following are examples of argot used in the entertainment industry. Metathesis from earlier protoform, though not so prevalent in Malay, can still be seen, as in the following: Loanwords can also be products of metathesis. The word tembikai "watermelon"
3417-529: The order of syllables. Verlanization is applied mostly to two-syllable words and the new words that are created are typically considerably less formal than the originals, and/or take on a slightly different meaning. The process often involves considerably more changes than simple metathesis of two phonemes but this forms the basis for verlan as a linguistic phenomenon. Some of these words have become part of standard French. A few well known examples are: Some Verlan words are metathesized more than once: In Greek ,
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#17330927029993484-400: The passive participle ġeworht "worked". This underwent metathesis to wroht , which became Modern English wrought . The Old English þyrl "hole" underwent metathesis to þryl . This gave rise to a verb þrylian "pierce", which became Modern English thrill , and formed the compound nosþryl "nose-hole" which became Modern English nostril (May have occurred in
3551-468: The prefixes di- and ni- , the a- metathesizes with di- , leading to an order of di- + a- + ni- , as in instead of the expected * adinisbąąs ( a-di-ni-sh-ł-bąąs ) ( a- is reduced to - ). Prakrit lost many of its consonant clusters from Sanskrit to aspirates due to metathesis. Clusters with /h/ also became reversed. Constituent (linguistics) In syntactic analysis,
3618-533: The present stem often consists of the root with a suffix of y ( ι ˰ in Greek). If the root ends in the vowel a or o , and the consonant n or r , the y exchanges position with the consonant and is written i : For metathesis of vowel length, which occurs frequently in Attic and Ionic Greek , see quantitative metathesis . In Hebrew the verb conjugation ( binyan ) hitpaēl ( התפעל ) undergoes metathesis if
3685-402: The pseudocleft test. One variant inserts the test string X in a sentence starting with a free relative clause: What.....is/are X ; the other variant inserts X at the start of the sentence followed by the it/are and then the free relative clause: X is/are what/who... Only the latter of these two variants is illustrated here. These examples suggest that Drunks , the customers , and put off
3752-503: The regions). Example:(Befr-Berf)this word means snow . The formula ( Berf ) was used in Afrin and many Kurdish regions in Syria , and the formula ( Befr ) was used in many Kurdish regions of Turkey . In western dialects of Finnish , historical stem-final /h/ has been subject to metathesis (it is lost in standard Finnish). That leads to variant word forms: Some words have been standardized in
3819-409: The same region on the body. Constraints on the applications of metathesis in ASL has led to discussions that the phonology breaks down the body into regions distinct from settings. Amharic has a few minor patterns of metathesis, as shown by Wolf Leslau . For example, "matches" [kəbrit] is sometimes pronounced as [kərbit] , [mogzit] "nanny" is sometimes pronounced as [mozgit] . The word "Monday"
3886-403: The sentence. The idea is that the strings on either side of the adverb are constituents. Example (a) suggests that Drunks and could put off the customers are constituents. Example (b) suggests that Drunks could and put off the customers are constituents. The combination of (a) and (b) suggest in addition that could is a constituent. Sentence (c) suggests that Drunks could put and off
3953-445: The string put off the customers in (b), marginal acceptability makes it difficult to draw a conclusion about put off the customers . There are various difficulties associated with this test. The first of these is that it can identify too many constituents, such as in this case here where it is impossible to produce a single constituent structure that could simultaneously view each of the three acceptable examples (c-e) as having elided
4020-492: The strings tested in sentences (a-g) as constituents. However, additional data are problematic, since they suggest that certain strings are also constituents even though most theories of syntax do not acknowledge them as such, e.g. These data suggest that could put off , put off these , and Drunks could are constituents in the test sentence. Most theories of syntax reject the notion that these strings are constituents, though. Data such as (h-j) are sometimes addressed in terms of
4087-504: The structure beginning with It is/was : It was X that... . The test string appears as the pivot of the cleft sentence: These examples suggest that Drunks and the customers are constituents in the test sentence. Example c is of dubious acceptability, suggesting that put off the customers may not be constituent in the test string. Clefting is like most of the other tests for constituents in that it fails to identify most individual words as constituents: The examples suggest that each of
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#17330927029994154-439: The test sentence because these strings can be coordinated with bums , would , drive away , and neighbors , respectively. Coordination also identifies multi-word strings as constituents: These data suggest that the customers , put off the customers , and could put off the customers are constituents in the test sentence. Examples such as (a-g) are not controversial insofar as many theories of sentence structure readily view
4221-444: The test sentence. Omission used in this manner is of limited applicability, since it is incapable of identifying any constituent that appears obligatorily. Hence there are many target strings that most accounts of sentence structure take to be constituents but that fail the omission test because these constituents appear obligatorily, such as subject phrases. Intrusion probes sentence structure by having an adverb "intrude" into parts of
4288-400: The test sentence. Regarding the test sentence, however, the omission test is very limited in its ability to identify constituents, since the strings that one wants to check do not appear optionally. Therefore, the test sentence is adapted to better illustrate the omission test: The ability to omit obnoxious , immediately , and when they arrive suggests that these strings are constituents in
4355-414: The test sentence. Some have pointed to a problem associated with the one -substitution in this area, however. This problem is that it is impossible to produce a single constituent structure of the noun phrase the loyal customers around here who we rely on that could simultaneous view all of the indicated strings as constituents. Another problem that has been pointed out concerning the one -substitution as
4422-411: The value of passivization as test for constituents is very limited. Omission checks whether the target string can be omitted without influencing the grammaticality of the sentence. In most cases, local and temporal adverbials, attributive modifiers, and optional complements can be safely omitted and thus qualify as constituents. This sentence suggests that the definite article the is a constituent in
4489-430: Was a historian and scholar in rhetoric living in 1st century BC Greece. He analysed classical texts and applied several revisions to make them sound more eloquent . One of the methods he used was re-writing documents on a mainly grammatical level: changing word and sentence orders would make texts more fluent and "natural", he suggested. He called this way of re-writing metathesis . In ASL , several signs which have
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