Misplaced Pages

#146853

122-827: The division's lineage begins with the Brigade "Livorno" established by order of the Provisional Government of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany on 4 November 1859 with the 5th and 6th infantry regiments. On 25 March 1860 the Brigade "Livorno" entered the Royal Sardinian Army three days after the Kingdom of Sardinia had annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy , which included the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Already before entering

244-619: A Carthaginian army disembarked in Sicily to counter him, he asked for help from Gela and Syracuse. Gelo and Hiero were victorious in the subsequent battle of Himera , in which the Carthaginian leader Hamilcar died. After the death of Gelon in 478 BC, Hiero moved to Syracuse, leaving Gela to Polyzelos. Many of the Geloi returned from Syracuse in this period and the city regained some of its power. Aeschylus died in this city in 456 BC. In 425 BC during

366-525: A cognatic descendant of the Medici, succeeded the family and ascended the throne of his Medicean ancestors. Tuscany was governed by a viceroy, Marc de Beauvau-Craon , for his entire rule. His descendants ruled, and resided in, the grand duchy until its end in 1859, barring one interruption, when Napoleon Bonaparte gave Tuscany to the House of Bourbon-Parma ( Kingdom of Etruria , 1801–1807), then annexed it directly to

488-593: A Tuscan colony in America , with the intention of establishing a Tuscan settlement in the area of what is now French Guiana . Despite all of these incentives to economic growth and prosperity, the population of Florence, at dawn of the 17th century, was a mere 75,000 souls, far smaller than the other capitals of Italy: Rome , Milan , Venice , Palermo and Naples . Francesco and Ferdinando, due to lax distinction between Medici and Tuscan state property, are thought to have been wealthier than their ancestor, Cosimo de' Medici ,

610-624: A careful reading of the sources that name the Mamertines as the real destroyers of the city, five years earlier. The city subsequently disappeared from the chronicles. Under Roman rule, a small settlement, which is mentioned by Virgil , Pliny the Elder , Cicero , and Strabo , still existed. Later it was a minor Byzantine center. Under the Arabs, it was known as the "City of Columns". A later city called "Terranova", by which name it remained known until 1928,

732-534: A decade. Like the Empire's other loyal Italian subjects, the Tuscans were "hawks" who supported prosecuting the war to its conclusion. Francesco de' Medici , Mattias de'Medici, and Ottavio Piccolomini (an Imperial general of Sienese origin) were among the ringleaders in the plot to assassinate field marshal Albrecht von Wallenstein , for which they were rewarded with spoils by Emperor Ferdinand II . Tuscany participated in

854-481: A flotilla of 5 Algerian pirate vessels (including a large flagship). In the 10-hour battle, punctuated by cannon fire and boarding actions, 600 pirates were killed or captured and they lost 4 of the 5 ships (3 sunk, 1 captured), while the Italians lost 60 dead. Gela Gela ( Sicilian and Italian pronunciation: [ˈdʒɛːla] ; Ancient Greek : Γέλα ) is a city and comune (municipality) in

976-616: A larger portion, and that the specific origins of the troops have very little information to go on. He also cites the fact that many Italians served as mercenaries outside of Italy, though he admits that (other than the well-known mercenary tradition of Corsica) there is no information on their state origins. The duchy's largest military deployment came during this war, when in June 1643 over 10,000 troops (7,000 Tuscans in eight regiments of infantry recruited from militia, garrison troops, and veteran mercenaries; 1 regiment of German infantry; 2,400 cavalry,

1098-461: A liberal constitution in 1848. He was briefly deposed by a provisional government in 1849, but restored to power the same year by Austrian troops. The government was finally dissolved upon its annexation to the United Provinces of Central Italy in 1859. The court moved to Salzburg and lived there in exile until 1918. In addition to its regular army, the duchy maintained a citizen-militia. This

1220-536: A marriage with Vittoria della Rovere , the granddaughter of Francesco Maria II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino , in 1634. Together they had two children: Cosimo (III) , in 1642, and Francesco , in 1660. Ferdinando was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers , barometers , thermometers , and telescopes installed in the Pitti . In 1657, Leopoldo de' Medici , the Grand Duke's youngest brother, established

1342-437: A month later, but fortunately for the Medici his successor Pope Paul V was also pro-Medici. Ferdinando's pro-Papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. Ferdinando died in 1609, leaving an affluent realm; however, his inaction in international affairs drew Tuscany into the provincial yolk of politics. Ferdinando's elder son, Cosimo, mounted

SECTION 10

#1733085486147

1464-475: A quarter of whom were Germans; and 1 regiment of Tuscan dragoons) with 18 cannons invaded the Papal States holding of Umbria, while other troops and militia were left garrisoning the grand duchy's major citadels, coastal forts, and border forts. Militia were recruited into the army as needed to replace losses. Tuscany's economic and military strength cratered from the second half of the 17th century onward, which

1586-481: A referendum that voted overwhelmingly (95% ) in favour of a union with Sardinia, Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia as part of the new Kingdom of Italy . Strongly attached to its ideal traditions, it remained the only region in Italy to maintain the abolition of capital punishment in force until 1889, when it was eventually extended to the whole Kingdom with the promulgation of the new Zanardelli penal code . Tuscany

1708-535: A remote claim to the grand duchy (through some Medici descent), but died before he could press the matter. The Treaty of the Hague reconfirmed the statuses of Tuscany and Parma-Piacenza as imperial fiefs. Cosimo married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans , a granddaughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de' Medici. Their union wrought a high level of discontentment, but despite the tension they had three children, Ferdinando , Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Electress Palatine and

1830-470: A series of satellite colonies, including Akragas (Agrigento), and also managed to subdue several cities: Kallipolis (according to some, today's Giarre ), Leontini (Lentini), Naxos (Sicily) (Giardini-Naxos) and Zancle (Messina). Only Syracuse , with the help of her former colonizing city Corinth and Corcyra managed to escape. When Kamarina , a Syracusan colony, rebelled in 492 BC, Hippocrates intervened to wage war against Syracuse. After defeating

1952-556: A standing army of 3,000 poorly-trained troops. A modest plan to create a 5,000-strong Tuscan army under German officers was only semi-successful. Tuscan troops served the Emperor in Silesia during the Seven Years' War . The first contingent of 3,000 troops arrived in 1758, followed by a second contingent of 1,500, and subsequent smaller ones to replace losses from battle and disease. The fear that

2074-606: A success). From 1560 to 1609, the Tuscan fleet captured 76 galiots, 7 galleys, 2 large roundships, and 67 minor craft, taking 9,620 slaves and liberating 2,076 Christians. The preponderance of small vessels among the prizes indicates that most of the trophies were easy victories. The Tuscans were early pioneers in the deployment of roundships, as technology made manpower-heavy galleys less efficient. They launched several big ships at Portoferraio after 1601, with an armament of 40 guns each yet only 60 seamen each. 8 of them around 1610 floated

2196-534: A total of 200 guns. They began to raid independently of the galleys on long voyages to the Levant. In 1608, they intercepted a Turkish convoy of 42 vessels off Rhodes , seizing 9 and netting 600 slaves and a booty of 1 million ducats, equivalent to two years of revenue for the whole grand duchy. Under Grand Duke Cosimo II, 7 roundships carrying 1,800 soldiers were sent to the Mediterranean from 1609 to 1611. This expedition

2318-481: A two-month term); in their place was the consigliere , a four-man council elected for a three-month term, headed by the "Duke of the Florentine Republic" (and later the Grand Duke of Tuscany). The Senate, composed of forty-eight men, chosen by the constitutional reform commission, was vested with the prerogative of determining Florence's financial, security, and foreign policies. Additionally, the senate appointed

2440-540: Is best remembered for dying on the same day as his second wife, Bianca Cappello , spurring rumours of poisoning. He was succeeded by Ferdinando de' Medici, his younger brother, whom he loathed. Ferdinando eagerly assumed the government of Tuscany. He commanded the draining of the Tuscan marshlands, built a road network in Southern Tuscany, and cultivated trade in Livorno . To augment the Tuscan silk industry, he oversaw

2562-549: Is higher in autumn and winter. There are three main archaeological areas that can be visited today: Capo Soprano, the Acropolis and the site of Bosco Littorio. At Capo Soprano is the best preserved example in the world of Greek military architecture : the (Timolean) city walls. The length unearthed (almost 400 m) dates to the 4th century BC. The feature that makes them unique is the large squared blocks in Calcarenite 3 m high in

SECTION 20

#1733085486147

2684-754: Is one of the city's symbols. Until 405 BC the acropolis housed the most important sacred buildings of Gela but after the destruction by the Carthaginians, houses were built over the acropolis after the rise to power of Timoleon. In the Bosco Littorio, south of the Acropolis, the extensive emporium (7th–6th century BC) complex near the port at mouth of the river has been recently brought to light and restored. The emporium included workshops, warehouses and shops. A grandiose Hellenistic villa has been found in via Romagnoli (predio Iacona). The Greek baths of Gela in via Europa are unique in Sicily and consist of two rooms;

2806-654: Is situated on the Mediterranean coast at the estuary of Gela river on the south-western side of Sicily. The bounding municipalities are Acate , Butera , Caltagirone , Mazzarino and Niscemi . Its frazione (municipal parish) is the coastal village of Manfria . In geology , Gela gives its name to the Gelasian Age of the Pleistocene Epoch. Gela has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa ). Winters are mild and rainy while summers are dry and hot. Precipitation

2928-632: The Accademia del Cimento , which set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study. Tuscany was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that sided with the Emperor in the Thirty Years War , sending thousands of troops to support the pro-Imperial side from 1631. Among the commanders of the detachment were three of the grand duke's brothers; two died and one, Mattias de'Medici , became general of artillery and served for

3050-545: The Autonomous Region of Sicily , Italy; in terms of area and population, it is the largest municipality on the southern coast of Sicily. Gela is part of the Province of Caltanissetta and is one of the few comuni in Italy with a population and area that exceed those of the provincial capital . Gela was founded in 698 BC by Greek colonists from Rhodes and Crete ; it was an influential polis of Magna Graecia in

3172-670: The Congress of Gela , the Sicilian cities made peace on the basis of "Sicily for the Sicilians". Gela fought the Sicilian League that pushed back the Athenian attempt to conquer the island in 415 BC (see Sicilian Expedition ). In 406 BC, the Carthaginians conquered Agrigento and destroyed it. Gela asked for the help of Dionysius I of Syracuse but Dionysius did not arrive and, after heroic deeds,

3294-596: The Congress of Vienna , ceded the State of Presidi and the Principality of Piombino to a restored Tuscany. Ferdinand III resumed his rule, and died in 1824. Italian nationalism exploded in the post-Napoleonic years, leading to the establishment of secret societies bent on a unified Italy. When these leagues arrived in Tuscany, a concerned Ferdinand requisitioned an Austrian garrison, from his brother Emperor Francis of Austria , for

3416-538: The Duchy of Florence for 32 years. During his reign, Florence purchased the island of Elba from the Republic of Genoa (in 1548), conquered Siena (in 1555) and developed a well-equipped and powerful naval base on Elba. Cosimo also banned the clergy from holding administrative positions and promulgated laws of freedom of religion, which were unknown during his time. Cosimo also was a long-term supporter of Pope Pius V , who in

3538-555: The Duchy of Lucca , a state created by the Congress of Vienna solely to accommodate the House of Bourbon-Parma until they could re-assume their Parmese sovereignty upon the death of the Duchess of Parma for life, Marie Louise of Austria . In October 1847, as she was still alive and reigning, the Duke of Lucca decided to prematurely abdicate his throne in favour of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, while

3660-526: The First French Empire . Following the collapse of the Napoleonic system in 1814, the grand duchy was restored. The United Provinces of Central Italy , a client state of the Kingdom of Sardinia , annexed Tuscany in 1859. Tuscany was formally annexed in 1860, as a part of the unification of Italy , following a landslide referendum, in which 95% of voters approved. In 1569, Cosimo de' Medici had ruled

3782-549: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine was formally deposed by the Tuscan National Assembly on 16 August 1859. In December 1859, not before the provisional government had abolished the abhorred death penalty for the third time, the Grand Duchy was joined to the Duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy , which were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later. On 22 March 1860, after

4th Infantry Division "Livorno" - Misplaced Pages Continue

3904-471: The Kingdom of Naples . Vittoria della Rovere brought the Duchies of Montefeltro and Rovere into the family in 1631, upon her death in 1694, they passed to her younger son, Francesco Maria de' Medici . They reverted to the crown with the ascension of Gian Gastone. Gian Gastone, the last Medici, resigned the grand duchy to Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Under him, Tuscany was ruled by a viceroy , Marc de Beauvau-Craon, Prince de Craon . Francis Stephen altered

4026-493: The Siege of Florence , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issued a proclamation explicitly stating that he and he alone could determine the government of Florence. On 12 August 1530, the Emperor created the Medici hereditary rulers ( capo ) of the Republic of Florence. Pope Clement VII willed his relative Alessandro de' Medici to be the monarchical ruler of Florence, and went about requisitioning that dignity carefully; he wanted to give

4148-508: The Treaty of Fontainebleau (27 October 1807), Etruria was to be annexed by France . The negotiations had been between Spain and France, and the Etrurian regent was kept entirely in the dark, only being informed that she would have to leave her young son's kingdom on 23 November 1807. She and her court left on 10 December. On 30 May 1808, Etruria was formally annexed to France. An "Extraordinary Giunta"

4270-633: The Twelfth Air Force during the Italian Campaign , in the area around the city. After the war, a large oil refinery was built in Gela's territory as a part of Eni 's industrial expansion plan in South Italy. The refinery was intended to help the region's economy but instead it caused significant damage to the area's visual appearance and touristic appeal and in 2014, the refinery was closed down. Gela

4392-539: The Wars of Castro (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Pope Urban VIII in 1643. The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. The interest rate was lowered by 0.75%. The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places. The exchequer

4514-570: The 2nd millennium BC. Gela was founded around 688 BC by colonists from Rhodes and Crete , 45 years after the founding of Syracuse . Archaeology has shown that they chose to settle on the northern slope of the Molino a Vento extending for more than 400 m towards the west up to Castelluccio. The city was named after the river Gela , the name of which derives from gela , the Sicilian-dialect word for "winter frost". According to Diodorus Siculus ,

4636-488: The 4th Territorial Division of Cuneo, which also included the 28th Field Artillery Regiment . In 1930 the division exchanged the 38th Infantry Regiment "Ravenna" for the 44th Infantry Regiment "Forlì" with the 3rd Territorial Division of Alessandria . In 1934 the division changed its name to 4th Infantry Division " Monviso ". During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War the division's 34th Infantry Regiment "Livorno"

4758-615: The 7th and 6th centuries BC and became one of the most powerful cities until the 5th c. BC. Aeschylus , the famous playwright, lived here and died in 456 BC. In 1943, during the Invasion of Sicily , the Allied forces made their first landing on the island at Gela. Archaeology has shown that the acropolis of Gela was occupied during the Copper Age in the 4th millennium BC and during the Bronze Age in

4880-552: The Allied armored units that attacked from west between Valguarnera Caropepe and Raddusa threatened to encircle the Livorno. Raddusa was lost by the Italians on 18 July 1943 after heavy fighting, and the Livorno took a stand at the Simeto river south of Catania . On 22 July 1943 the Livorno division was subject to heavy coastal bombardment by British ships between Leonforte and the mouth of

5002-413: The Congress had originally stipulated that they should be assigned to Modena, but, with the annexation of Lucca, they were no longer territorially separated from the rest of the Grand Duchy and loudly refused to be handed over to the unbeloved Modena House of Austria-Este . On taking possession of his new state, Leopold unexpectedly granted it the abolition of the death penalty, a measure whose effectiveness

4th Infantry Division "Livorno" - Misplaced Pages Continue

5124-466: The Electress Palatine, she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death. The proposal sank, and ultimately died with Cosimo in 1723. As Grand Prince Ferdinando, Gian Gastone's elder brother, predeceased Cosimo III, Gian Gastone succeeded his father in 1723. Gian Gastone for most of his life, kept to his bed and acted in an unregal manner, rarely appearing to his subjects, to

5246-574: The Emperor during the Battle of Vienna . Tuscany was neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession , partly due to Tuscany's ramshackle military; a 1718 military review revealed that the army numbered less than 3,000 men, many of whom were infirm and elderly. Meanwhile, the state's capital, Florence, had become full of beggars. Europe heard of the perils of Tuscany, and Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor asserted

5368-668: The Emperor during the Thirty Years War . From 1629 to 1630 he also sent 6,000 troops to join the Spanish in the War of the Mantuan Succession , plus a naval detachment and funds to pay for 4,000 Swiss mercenaries. In 1643, during the Castro War, the Tuscan army was between 5,000 and 10,000 good troops, including foreign mercenaries but not including militia. Yves-Marie Berce figures that most of those troops were of French or Swiss origin, but Hanlon disputes this, saying that Italians comprised

5490-521: The Emperor would impose conscription on the duchy caused 2% of the population to flee to the Papal States . In 1763, when nuptial agreements for the marriage of the imperial couple's second surviving son, Leopold , and the Infanta of Spain , Maria Luisa of Bourbon , were stipulated, Tuscany was erected into a secundogeniture . Thus, upon the death of Francis I, it was Leopold who directly succeeded him on

5612-649: The Livorno Division attacked the American troops around Gela. The American division beat them back with severe casualties. This was the heaviest response to the Allied advance." The Livorno regrouped and made a further attempt to retake Gela two days later and the III Battalion, 34th Infantry Regiment "Livorno", is recorded by its commanding officer to have made a valiant effort in the Gela Beachhead, but on 15 July 1943,

5734-457: The Lucca exclaves of Montignoso , Gallicano , Minucciano and Castiglione were given to the Duchy of Modena in accordance with the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna. Tuscany in turn ceded its Lunigiana domains either to Modena (Vicariate of Fivizzano ), or to Parma (Vicariate of Pontremoli and other minor territories), retaining instead its ancient exclaves of Pietrasanta and Barga :

5856-662: The Medici acquired several territories, which included: the County of Pitigliano , purchased from the Orsini family in 1604; the County of Santa Fiora , acquired from the House of Sforza in 1633; Spain ceded Pontremoli in 1650, Silvia Piccolomini sold her estates, the Marquisate of Castiglione at the time of Cosimo I , Lordship of Pietra Santa , and the Duchy of Capistrano and the city of Penna in

5978-419: The Royal Sardinian Army the brigade's two infantry regiments had been renumbered on 30 December 1859 as 33rd Infantry Regiment and 34th Infantry Regiment. The brigade fought on the Italian front in World War I . On 1 October 1926 the brigade assumed the name of IV Infantry Brigade and received the 38th Infantry Regiment "Ravenna" from the disbanded Brigade "Ravenna" . The brigade was the infantry component of

6100-462: The Sicilian wars, Gela was an ally of Syracuse, while Kamarina was on the opposing side although they were traditional allies. They concluded an armistice in the late summer. Since a bilateral peace was unlikely to last if the rest of the island remained at war, the two cities invited all the belligerents to convene and discuss peace terms. The cities not only sent ambassadors but also granted them unusually broad power to conduct diplomacy. In 424 BC at

6222-402: The Simeto, but managed to hold its position. Failures of other Axis units in Sicily then forced the Livorno to retreat. The retreat route passed through Agira and Regalbuto , where the division suffered severe losses. The remnants of Livorno were sent to Castroreale to reorganize on 30 July 1943, but because of a complete absence of supplies, the decision was made to evacuate the remnants of

SECTION 50

#1733085486147

6344-498: The Spanish Infante . The Tuscans despised the new occupying "Lorrainers", as they interfered with the Tuscan government, while the occupying Spaniards had not done so. On 9 July 1737, Gian Gastone died; the last male Medici of the grand ducal line. Francis I (as Francis Stephen became known) lived in Florence briefly with his wife, the Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa , who became Tuscany's grand duchess. Francis had to cede his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine in order to accommodate

6466-548: The Spanish Empire. The Holy League inflicted a crushing defeat against the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto . Cosimo's reign was one of the most militaristic Tuscany had ever seen. Cosimo experienced several personal tragedies during the later years of his reign. His wife, Eleanor of Toledo , died in 1562, along with four of his children due to a plague epidemic in Florence. These deaths were to affect him greatly, which, along with illness, forced Cosimo to unofficially abdicate in 1564. This left his eldest son, Francesco , to rule

6588-444: The Syracusan army at the Heloros river, Hippocrates besieged the city but was persuaded to retreat in exchange for possession of Camarina. Hippocrates died in 491 BC in a battle against the Siculi , the native Sicilian people. Hippocrates was succeeded by Gelon , who in 484 BC conquered Syracuse and moved his seat of government there. His brother Hiero was given control over Gela. When Theron of Agrigento conquered Himera and

6710-431: The Tuscan banner. Ferdinand I expanded the Tuscan fleet after expanding the arsenal at Livorno, and oversaw many raids by both the navy and Order, including on Chios in 1599 (a failure), Preveza in 1605 (5 galleys with 400 Tuscan militia; a success), various Turkish ports in 1606 (6 galleys, some roundships, and 750 Tuscan soldiers; a success), and Bone in 1607 (8 galleys, 9 bertoni , and 1 galleon, with 2,300 soldiers;

6832-431: The border. The actual advance started 15 June 1940 with the capture of Collalunga pass at altitude 2608 m. There was intermittent fighting mostly in the form of artillery barrages until 23 June 1940, when fierce fighting erupted. After a day-long assault, the Italian forces were able to break the French defenses and reached Saint-Honorat in La Bollène-Vésubie commune. Afterward, the advance stalled and not much progress

6954-420: The capital of his wife's realm, Vienna. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1745. He died at Innsbruck from a stroke in 1765; his wife pledged the rest of her life to mourning him, while co-ruling with her first son, her own heir apparent , and Francis' imperial successor Joseph II . The administrative structure of the grand duchy itself would see little change under Francis I. Since their accession to

7076-426: The city of Gela , but guns from the destroyer Shubrick and the light cruiser Boise destroyed several Fiat 3000 tanks. Also, Allied forces had attacked the division's right flank from Licata towards the direction of Ravanusa and Riesi , tying up many of the Italian troops. The Battle of Gela was reported by an American newspaper: "Supported by no less than forty-five tanks, a considerable force of infantry of

7198-413: The city was founded by Antiphemus and Entimus. Gela immediately had violent clashes with the Sicani of the area: Antiphemus waged a war against the city of Omphace , not far from Gela. The Gelans won and defeated the city, also taking away a statue that was said to have been made by the mythical sculptor Daedalus. The Temple of Athena Lindia, protector of the city, was built on the acropolis over

7320-443: The claim to the throne of his closest male relative, the Prince of Ottajano , he allowed Tuscany to be bestowed upon Don Carlos. During the War of the Polish Succession , Don Carlos conquered the Kingdom of Naples and was forced to give up the Tuscan succession by the Treaty of Vienna (1738) . Soon after, Francis Stephen of Lorraine became heir to the Tuscan throne. Gian Gastone had no say in events and had become quite attached to

7442-426: The commissions of war and public security, and the governors of Pisa , Arezzo , Prato , Voltera and Cortona and ambassadors. To be eligible, one had to be male and a noble. The Council of Two Hundred was a petitions court; membership was for life. This constitution was still in effect through the Medicean grand duchy, albeit the institutions were decayed and powerless by the rule of Ferdinando II . Over time,

SECTION 60

#1733085486147

7564-414: The country's population continued to decline. By 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt, and the population of Florence had declined by approximately 50%, while the population of the entire grand duchy had decreased by an estimated 40%. The once powerful navy was reduced to a pitiful state. Cosimo frequently paid the Holy Roman Emperor, his feudal overlord, high dues. He sent munitions to

7686-444: The country). An anonymous Venetian intelligence report from the late 16th century stated that Tuscany could spend 800,000 ducats annually on war (half as much as the Spanish-held Kingdom of Naples despite having a quarter of its population), and could raise 40,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, counting soldiers, militia, and mercenaries from nearby Corsica and Romagna, a force massively out of proportion to its population. Hanlon considers

7808-415: The deeply rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with the pope, were not successful. Leopold also approved and collaborated on the development of a political constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1778. Leopold's concept of this was based on respect for

7930-437: The defence of the state. Ferdinand aligned Tuscany with Austria. Following Ferdinand's death, his elder son, Leopold II , succeeded him. Leopold was contemporarily acknowledged as a liberal monarch. Despite his merits, most his subjects still dismissed him as a foreigner. His affinity for Austria was equally unpalatable. In 1847, in application of the 1844 secret Treaty of Florence  [ it ] , Leopold II annexed

8052-451: The deposed ruler of Poland, whose daughter Marie Leszczyńska was Queen of France. Marie's father Stanisław Leszczyński ruled Lorraine as compensation for his loss of the Kingdom of Poland . Francis was reluctant to resign the duchy, but Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (Maria Theresa's father) stated that if he did not relinquish his rights to Lorraine, he could not marry Maria Theresa. Francis did not live in his Tuscan realm, and lived in

8174-417: The division to the mainland Italy. On 1 August 1943, the Livorno division reached Messina . From 1-14 August 1943 the Livorno was ferried to Calabria , suffering further losses in the process. Only 4,200 troops out of an initial strength of 13,000 could be saved. In early September 1943, the Livorno returned to Piedmont to be reformed. After the announcement of the Armistice of Cassibile on 8 September 1943

8296-663: The division was disbanded by the invading German forces on 9 September 1943, while all of its personnel was on leave. The 4th Infantry Division "Livorno" had its recruiting area in southern Piedmont and was headquartered in Cuneo . Its two infantry regiments were based in Cuneo (33rd) and Fossano (34th), with the division's artillery regiment also based in Cuneo. Attached during the invasion of France in 1940: Attached from 10 February to 18 August 1941: The division's commanding officers were: Grand Duchy of Tuscany The Grand Duchy of Tuscany ( Italian : Granducato di Toscana ; Latin : Magnus Ducatus Etruriae )

8418-415: The division was rerouted to Sicily as the situation in Tunisia worsened. In Sicily the division initially deployed in the area of Caltanissetta , San Cataldo , Aragona , Raffadali , and Serradifalco as the 6th Army 's mobile reserve. The Livorno was the only Italian mobile division in Sicily as it had sufficient transport to move all of its infantry units simultaneously. Located in southern Sicily at

8540-402: The division, which changed its name to 4th Infantry Division "Livorno". At the beginning of June 1940, the Livorno division was deployed for the Italian invasion of France at the border with France, south-west of Vinadio , concentrating at Pas de Saint-Anne and Lausfer pass . Rear echelons stretched back to Bagni di Vinadio . The division started operations on 13 June 1940 by shelling across

8662-438: The duchy. Cosimo I died in 1574 of apoplexy , leaving a stable and extremely prosperous Tuscany behind him, having been the longest ruling Medici yet. Francesco had little interest in governing his realm, instead participating in scientific experiments. The administration of the state was delegated to bureaucrats. He continued his father's Austrian/Imperial alliance, cementing it by marrying Johanna of Austria . Francesco

8784-486: The end of Spanish subsidies, in 1574 the navy shrunk to 4 galleys. Grand Duke Ferdinand I sought to expand Tuscany's naval strength during his reign, and cooperated with the Order of Saint Stephen , which often blurred the line between itself and the Tuscan navy. The Order in 1604 counted among its fleet 6 galleys, 3 roundships/ bertoni , 2 transports, 1 galleon, and 1 galleass, supplemented by other ships financed by corsairs flying

8906-484: The extent that, at times, he had been thought dead. Gian Gastone would repeal his father's puritan laws. In 1731, the Powers gathered at Vienna to decide who would succeed Gian Gastone. They drew up the Treaty of Vienna , which gave the grand ducal throne to Don Carlos, Duke of Parma . Gian Gastone was not as steadfast in negotiating Tuscany's future as his father was. He capitulated to foreign demands, and instead of endorsing

9028-503: The first of its kind to be introduced in Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new hospital, the Bonifacio. He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo Chiarugi , at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of

9150-630: The flanks of the hill. The monumental area of the city was moved to Capo Soprano. Under Agathocles (317-289 BC), the city again suffered internal strife between the people and the aristoi (aristocrats). When the Carthaginians arrived in 311 BC, they met little resistance and captured the city with the help of the aristoi . The acropolis site at Molino a Vento was then definitively abandoned. In 282 BC Phintias of Agrigento ruthlessly destroyed Gela to crush its power forever and transferred its population to his new city of Phintias next to present-day Licata . This assertion, however, seems to be refuted by

9272-481: The following year, Gela was ruined and its treasures sacked. The survivors took refuge in Syracuse. In 397 BC, they returned in Gela and joined Dionysius II in his struggle for freedom from the invaders and in 383 BC their independence was acknowledged. Timoleon rebuilt the city walls in 338 BC after the destruction by the Carthaginians. The Acropolis lost its sacred character and was populated with houses arranged on

9394-597: The founder of the dynasty. The Grand Duke alone had the prerogative to exploit the state's mineral and salt resources. The fortunes of the Medici were directly tied to the Tuscan economy. Ferdinando, despite no longer being a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive Papal conclaves ; elections which chose the Pope , the head of the Catholic Church . In 1605, Ferdinando succeeded in getting his candidate, Alessandro de' Medici, elected as Pope Leo XI . Leo XI died less than

9516-450: The grand duke. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor proclaimed Alessandro de' Medici , Duke of Florence "for his lifetime, and after his death to be succeeded by his sons, male heirs and successors, of his body, by order of primogeniture, and failing them by the closest male of the Medici family, and likewise in succession forever, by order of primogeniture." Following the Republic's surrender in

9638-405: The hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral treatment movement. Leopold attempted to secularize the property of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the government. These measures, which disturbed

9760-420: The importance that the ancient Greeks gave to defensive design and engineering as they were designed by an architect down to the smallest detail, with devices and structures intended for specific purposes such as protection from weather and towers, stairs, walkways, drains, buttresses. Inside the walls the military district was brought to light with buildings of clay bricks. Not far away, a large residential area of

9882-584: The impression that the Florentines democratically chose Alessandro to be their monarch. In April 1532, the Pope convinced the Balía , Florence's ruling commission, to draw up a new constitution. The document in question was officiated on the 27th of that month. It formally created a hereditary monarchy, abolished the age-old signoria (elective government) and the office of gonfaloniere (titular ruler of Florence elected for

10004-470: The initial assault on 9 July 1943 of the Allied invasion of Sicily , the U.S. 1st Infantry Division and the 82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion landed on the beaches of Gela, which were strongly defended by the Livorno Division . The Allied forces repelled an Italian and German armored counter-attack at Gela . The U.S. Army Engineers built several advanced landing airfields, which were used by

10126-414: The last Medicean grand duke of Tuscany, Gian Gastone de' Medici . Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence , a decision that was complicated by the Grand Duchy's feudal status: Florence was an Imperial fief, Siena a Spanish one. The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased his daughter,

10248-467: The latter was called to Vienna, to assume the rule of his family's Austrian dominions and become Emperor, his second-born son Ferdinand immediately succeeded him as head of the Grand Duchy. Leopold himself died in 1792. Following the serious Sanfedist disorders that occurred in Tuscany upon Leopold's departure for Austria, the new emperor partially revoked the abolition of the death penalty ordered 4 years earlier, and in 1795 Ferdinand further expanded

10370-576: The laws of succession in 1763, when he declared his second son , Leopold, heir to the grand duchy. If Leopold's line were to become extinct, it would revert to the main line. Should Leopold or any of his direct successors somehow come into possession of the main domains of the Habsburg monarchy , the grand duchy would then pass on to their second son and the latter's successors. Every grand duke after Leopold resided in Florence. Grand Duke Leopold II agreed to ratify

10492-640: The light of Florence's expansion in August 1569, declared Cosimo Grand Duke of Tuscany, a title unprecedented in Italy. The international reaction to Cosimo's elevation was bleak. Queen Catherine of France , though herself a Medici, viewed Cosimo with the utmost disdain. Rumours circulated at the Viennese court that had Cosimo as a candidate for King of England. Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and his cousin King Philip II of Spain reacted quite angrily, as Florence

10614-422: The lower part and a thick layer of raw or sun-dried clay bricks above which were perfectly preserved. The upper layer was probably added as a quick solution after news of the imminent invasion of the Carthaginians. At some points the walls externally reached a height of almost 10 m. They are considered to be one of the most important discoveries of classical archeology of the twentieth century as they are testimony of

10736-413: The new Tuscan alliance, he married the deceased Francesco's younger daughter, Marie , to Henry IV of France . Henry explicitly stated that he would defend Tuscany from Spanish aggression, but later reneged. Ferdinando was forced to marry his heir, Cosimo II , to Archduchess Maria Maddalena of Austria to assuage Spain (where Maria Maddalena's sister was the incumbent Queen consort). Ferdinando sponsored

10858-407: The one located to the north west consists of two groups of bathtubs connected by a wastewater system that surrounds a central space. The bathtubs that make up the first of the two groups are arranged in a horseshoe and have a particular shape. While only two seats of this first group have been lost, those of the second group are all missing the upper half (perhaps never completed). The material used for

10980-406: The planting of Mulberry trees along the major roads (silk worms feed on Mulberry leaves). He shifted Tuscany away from Habsburg hegemony by marrying the first non-Habsburg candidate since Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence , Christina of Lorraine , a granddaughter of Catherine de' Medici . The Spanish reaction was to construct a citadel on their portion of the island of Elba. To strengthen

11102-409: The political rights of citizens and on a harmony of power between the executive and the legislative. However, the constitution was so radically new that it garnered opposition even from those who might have benefited from it. In 1790, Emperor Joseph II died without issue before carrying out his project for the abolition of secundogeniture in Tuscany, partly due to Leopold's latent resistance. Thus, when

11224-467: The protohistoric remains in the 7th century BC, This was then incorporated into a second temple in the 6th century, also dedicated to Athena. The Greeks established many colonies in Magna Graecia and for many centuries they had a major influence on the area. Gela flourished and the expansionist policy of the tyrants of Gela, in particular Cleander and especially Hippocrates , led to the city founding

11346-522: The regime sprang up in August, in Livorno. Leopold II lent his support to the Kingdom of Sardinia in the First Italian War of Independence . In February 1849, Leopold II had to abandon Tuscany to republicans and sought refuge in the Neapolitan city of Gaeta . A provisional republic was established in his stead. It was only with Austrian assistance that Leopold could return to Florence. The constitution

11468-521: The register of prizes of the Order of Saint Stephen. It lists some 238 vessels captured from 1563 to 1688; enemy galleys captured from 1568 to 1599 were 11 (for the loss of an identical number), and another 17 were seized between 1602 and 1635. Only 1 was captured after 1635. A notable incident in this time was a naval battle off Sardinia in October 1624, in which 15 Tuscan, Papal, and Neapolitan galleys converged on

11590-752: The report overly optimistic, but with some basis in fact. In response to the Türkenkriege during the Long Turkish War starting in 1593, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany sent 100,000 scudi and 3,600 soldiers (3,000 infantry and 600 cavalry) to support the Holy Roman Emperor in Hungary , plus smaller detachments thereafter (there were 2,000 Tuscans in the Imperial army in Hungary by 1601). A Tuscan-Spanish treaty that bound

11712-533: The same era was discovered. The Acropolis extends between the mouth of the Gela and the Pasqualello valley and contains the ruins of houses, shops, temples and the Hippodamian road system (with the plateia and the stenopoi ). The sacred area extended to the north: today only the bases of three temples are visible. Of the largest, temple C or Athenaion, a Doric-style column (almost 8 m high) remains standing and

11834-522: The scope of its application. Leopold was succeeded by Ferdinand III . Ferdinand was the son of Leopold I, and Grand Duchess Maria Louisa . He was forced out by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars , first in spring 1799 when a jacobin provisional government was created by the French army, and then after the Treaty of Aranjuez (1801) , becoming instead Elector of Salzburg , ruling

11956-571: The size and quality of the duchy's militia varied throughout its existence, as did its army. From 1553 to 1559, Tuscany raised 30,000 troops for their participation in the Last Italian War , which saw the Republic of Siena being added to the duchy. For the decades thereafter, the grand dukes only maintained a peacetime force of 2,500 soldiers, 500 cavalry to patrol the coasts and 2,000 infantry to man castles (Cosimo I having significantly expanded Tuscany's fortification network in an effort to defend

12078-400: The start of the Allied landings on 10 July 1943 , the division carried out a substantial counterattack on 10–11 July 1943 that almost succeed to throw the allies back into the sea, being stopped just a few hundred meters from the beaches. On 10 July Livorno's infantry supported by the 155th Bersaglieri Motorcyclists Company and a column of tanks poured onto Highways 115 and 117 and nearly retook

12200-525: The supreme court of Florence hastened to extend to the entire territory of the Grand Duchy, at the beginning of 1848. In Leopold's years Italy was engulfed in popular rebellion, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848 . The said revolution toppled the throne of France, and caused disarray across Europe. In Tuscany, Leopold II sanctioned a liberal constitution; and instituted a liberal ministry. Despite his attempts at acquiescence, street fighting in opposition to

12322-405: The taxation and tariff system. Smallpox vaccination was made systematically available (Leopold's mother Maria Theresa had been a huge supporter of inoculation against smallpox), and an early institution for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded. Leopold also abolished capital punishment . On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last

12444-409: The territory of the former archbishopric . The Grand Duchy was then dissolved, and replaced by the Kingdom of Etruria under the House of Bourbon-Parma , in compensation for their loss of Duchy of Parma . In 1803, the first King of Etruria, Louis I , died and was succeeded by his infant son, Charles Louis , under the regency of his mother, Queen María Luisa . Etruria lasted less than a decade. By

12566-750: The throne following his death. Like his uncle, Francesco I, government held no appeal for him, and Tuscany was ruled by his ministers. Cosimo II's twelve-year reign was punctuated by his contented marriage with Maria Maddalena and his patronage of astronomer Galileo Galilei . When Cosimo died, his oldest son, Ferdinando , was still a minor. This led to a regency of Ferdinand's grandmother, Dowager Grand Duchess Christina , and his mother, Maria Maddalena of Austria. Christina heavily relied on priests as advisors, lifting Cosimo I's ban on clergy holding administrative roles in government, and promoted monasticism. Christina dominated her grandson long after he came of age until her death in 1636. His mother and grandmother arranged

12688-595: The throne of Grand Dukes, however, the Habsburgs continually tried to make Tuscany a source of military power, to little success, as Tuscany had declined and demilitarized in the 18th century. Such was the failure of their initial effort that Vienna declared Tuscany to be neutral during the War of the Austrian Succession , and enemy troops crossed it unopposed. At that time the Habsburgs' efforts had only managed to muster

12810-429: The throne of the Grand Duchy. Leopold , usually referred to in Italy as "Pietro Leopoldo", ruled the country until his brother Joseph's death and his own election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1790. He was unpopular among his subjects, though his many reforms brought the Grand Duchy to a level of stability that had not been seen in quite a while. Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms. He revamped

12932-486: The title of Marquis of Terranova was created for Giovanni Tagliavia Aragona, and in 1561, his son Carlo obtained the title of Duke. The Terranova Aragona held the city until 1640, when the marriage of Giovanna Tagliavia Aragona and Ettore Pignatelli give the possession to the Pignatelli, who held the fiefdom until 1812. Terranova was renamed Terranova di Sicilia, and in 1927, it was renamed Gela. In World War II , during

13054-419: The tubs was an agglomeration of terracotta fragments and sandstone debris while some seats are entirely in terracotta. Among recent discoveries in the area are: In 2019, a sarcophagus containing an intact skeleton was discovered at Gela. Some weeks later, a short distance away, a ceramic water jug containing the bones of a newborn baby and parts of a large animal's skeleton was discovered. Archaeologists said

13176-575: The two at the end of the Italian Wars demanded that Tuscany send 5,000 troops to the Spanish army if ever the Duchy of Milan or Naples was attacked. In 1613, Cosimo II sent 2,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, along with an undisclosed number of Tuscan adventurers, to aid the Spanish after Savoy launched an invasion of the Duchy of Montferrat . In 1631, the grand duke sent 7,000 troops (6,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry) to join Wallenstein's army in support of

13298-478: Was an Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1860, replacing the Republic of Florence . The grand duchy's capital was Florence . In the 19th century the population of the Grand Duchy was about 1,815,000 inhabitants. Having brought nearly all Tuscany under his control after conquering the Republic of Siena , Cosimo I de' Medici , was elevated by a papal bull of Pope Pius V to Grand Duke of Tuscany on 27 August 1569. The Grand Duchy

13420-568: Was barely adequate to cover the state's current expenditure, resulting in a complete termination of banking operations for the Medici. Ferdinando II died in 1670, succeeded by his oldest surviving son Cosimo. Cosimo III's reign was characterised by drastic changes and a sharp decline of the Grand Duchy. Cosimo III was of a puritan character, banning May celebrations, forcing prostitutes to pay for licenses, and beheading sodomites. He also instituted several laws censoring education and introduced anti-Jewish legislation. He imposed crippling taxes while

13542-422: Was divided into two main administrative districts: the stato nuovo (the new state) consisting of the former Republic of Siena , and the stato vecchio (the old state), the old Republic of Florence and her dependencies. The two areas were governed by separate laws. They were divided because the stato nuovo was a Spanish fief and the stato vecchio an Imperial one. Siena was ruled by a governor appointed by

13664-437: Was founded in 1233 by Frederick II . The new settlement was located west of ancient Gela, and was provided with a castle and a line of walls. Terranova, also known as Heracles, was a royal possession until 1369, when King Frederick III of Aragon gave it to Manfredi III Chiaramonte . In 1401, however, after the treason of Andrea Chiaramonte , the city was confiscated and was assigned to several Aragonese feudataries. In 1530,

13786-413: Was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. Torture was also banned. Leopold also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of the mentally ill . On 23 January 1774, the legge sui pazzi (law regarding the insane) was established,

13908-526: Was in theory an Imperial fief and declared Pius V's actions invalid. However, Maximilian eventually confirmed the elevation with an Imperial diploma in 1576. Subsequently, to end animosities with Maximilian, Cosimo "bought" the grand ducal title from him for 100,000 ducats. During the Holy League of 1571 , Cosimo fought against the Ottoman Empire , siding with the other Catholic powers, such as Venice and

14030-513: Was less successful, costing 800 men and 4 ships disabled. The grand duke also enticed English corsairs in North Africa to use Livorno as a base instead, in exchange for amnesty and a share of their profits; Livorno quickly became a corsair capital, with the corsairs preying on both Muslim and Christian shipping. After 1612, the Tuscans progressively stopped sending out expeditions and limited their naval operations to patrols. This can be observed in

14152-590: Was made until the armistice of 25 June 1940. In April 1942 the Livorno began to reorganize as an auto-transportable division of the North-African type for the planned invasion of Malta scheduled for summer of that year. However due to the deteriorating situation in the North African theater the division was reformed as a motorized unit and earmarked for the Tunisian campaign . Once the transfer to Tunisia got underway

14274-484: Was placed in charge under General Jacques François Menou . Tuscany was divided into the départements of Arno , Méditerranée and Ombrone . In March 1809 a "General Government of the Departments of Tuscany" was set up, and Napoleon put his sister Elisa Bonaparte at its head, with the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany. The Napoleonic system collapsed in 1814, and the following territorial settlement agreed to at

14396-524: Was reflected in the quality of its army; by 1740 it only consisted of a few thousand poorly-trained men and was considered impotent to such a degree that its Habsburgs rulers allowed enemy troops to cross the duchy unopposed. The grand duchy had two sources of naval power: the state navy and the Order of Saint Stephen . In 1572 the Tuscan navy consisted of 11 galleys, 2 galleasses, 2 galleons, 6 frigates, and various transports, carrying in all 200 guns, manned by 100 knights, 900 seamen, and 2,500 oarsmen. With

14518-624: Was revoked in 1852, as was the abolition of capital punishment. The Austrian garrison was withdrawn in 1855. The Second Italian War of Independence broke out in the summer of 1859. Leopold felt obliged to espouse Austria's cause. The Royal Sardinian Army of Victor Emmanuel II captured Tuscany in its entirety, and held it for the duration of the conflict; Leopold fled Tuscany as a result. The Peace of Villafranca stipulated that Leopold be allowed to return, although in practise this never happened. He abdicated in favour of his elder son, Ferdinand . Ferdinand IV's hypothetical reign did not last long;

14640-465: Was ruled by the House of Medici until the extinction of its senior branch in 1737. While not as internationally renowned as the old republic, the grand duchy thrived under the Medici and it bore witness to unprecedented economic and military success under Cosimo I and his sons, until the reign of Ferdinando II , which saw the beginning of the state's long economic decline. That economic decline continued under Cosimo III . Francis Stephen of Lorraine ,

14762-583: Was sent to garrison Leros in the Italian Islands of the Aegean . The regiment departed on 3 September 1935 and returned on 14 September 1936. On 31 March 1939 the division ceded the 44th Infantry Regiment "Forlì" to the newly activated 36th Infantry Division "Forlì" and on 5 April of the same year the IV Infantry Brigade was dissolved and the two remaining infantry regiments came under direct command of

14884-411: Was used both for the protection of towns and fortresses that the army was not able to garrison, and as a reserve from which semi-trained men would be drawn into the army. The militia had its origins in 1498 , in the predecessor state of the Florentine Republic. By 1506, it numbered 20,000 men, of whom 70% carried pikes, 20% halberds/bills and hog-spears , and 10% either arquebuses or crossbows. However,

#146853