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139-454: The history of literature is the historical development of writings in prose or poetry that attempt to provide entertainment or education to the reader, as well as the development of the literary techniques used in the communication of these pieces. Not all writings constitute literature . Some recorded materials, such as compilations of data (e.g., a check register ) are not considered literature, and this article relates only to
278-488: A diary or journal). The global spread of digital communication systems such as e-mail and social media has made writing an increasingly important feature of daily life, where these systems mix with older technologies like paper, pencils, whiteboards, printers, and copiers. Substantial amounts of everyday writing characterize most workplaces in developed countries . In many occupations (e.g. law, accounting , software design , human resources ), written documentation
417-442: A " text ", is a series of physically inscribed , mechanically transferred , or digitally represented symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a "reader". In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space. While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend
556-778: A complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the writing system(s) deployed. Inscriptions have been made with fingers , styluses , quills , ink brushes , pencils , pens , and many styles of lithography ; surfaces used for these inscriptions include stone tablets , clay tablets , bamboo slats, papyrus , wax tablets , vellum , parchment , paper , copperplate , slate , porcelain , and other enameled surfaces . The Incas used knotted cords known as quipu (or khipu) for keeping records. The typewriter and subsequently various digital word processors have recently become widespread writing tools, and studies have compared
695-670: A genre in their own right, including the Zuo Zhuan , the Gongyang Zhuan , and the Guliang Zhuan . The Zuo Zhuan is considered to be the first large scale narrative work in Chinese literature. The Art of War by Sun Tzu was an influential book on military strategy that is still referenced in the modern era. Poetry written in the brief period of the Qin dynasty has been entirely lost. Poetry in
834-694: A governmental role for the collection of musical works and folk songs that would persist throughout Chinese history. Historical documents developed into an early form of literature during the Warring States period, as documentation was combined with narrative and sometimes with legendary accounts of history. Two of the Six Classics, the Book of Documents and the Spring and Autumn Annals , are historical documents. The latter inspired works of historical commentary that became
973-566: A language group that contains the Aramaic language , as well as the Canaanite languages such as Phoenician and Hebrew . A corpus of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions (or "Northwest Semitic inscriptions") are the primary extra-Biblical source for the writings of the ancient Phoenicians , Hebrews and Arameans . These inscriptions occur on stone slabs, pottery ostraca , ornaments, and range from simple names to full texts. The books that constitute
1112-513: A legend and admit their ignorance over how the transition from one dynasty to another transpired. During this dynasty, Egyptian religion made several important changes. The earliest known copies of funerary prayers inscribed on royal tombs (known as the Pyramid Texts ) appear. The cult of the god Ra gains added importance, and kings from Userkaf through Menkauhor Kaiu built temples dedicated to Ra at or near Abusir . Then late in this dynasty,
1251-620: A more dependable method for creating permanent records of transactions. On the other hand, writing in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica may have evolved through the political necessity to manage the calendar for recording historical and environmental events. Further innovations included more uniform, predictable, and widely dispersed legal systems, the distribution of accessible versions of sacred texts , and furthering practices of scientific inquiry and knowledge management , all of which were largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of inscribed language. The history of writing
1390-455: A mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at Wadi el-Hol in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It
1529-601: A mystery. How Pharaoh Userkaf founded this dynasty is not known for certain. The Westcar Papyrus , which was written during the Middle Kingdom , tells a story of how king Khufu of Dynasty IV was given a prophecy that triplets born to the wife of the priest of Ra in Sakhbu would overthrow him and his heirs, and how he attempted to put these children – named Userkaf, Sahure , and Neferirkare – to death; however in recent years, scholars have recognized this story to be at best
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#17328840655221668-467: A notable role in the earliest Chinese literature, though it was less prominent compared to mythological literature in other civilizations. By the time of the Zhou dynasty , Chinese culture emphasized the community over the individual, discouraging mythological stories of great personages and characterization of the divine. Mythological literature was more common in the southern Chu nation. The Tao Te Ching and
1807-509: A period of abstraction that removed much of its literary elements. Guo Pu and Tao Yuanming were notable poets in Eastern Jin. The popularity of literary poetry and aestheticism grew during the Southern dynasties , and literature as art began to be recognized as distinct from political and philosophical literature. This resulted in the growth of literary criticism, with The Literary Mind and
1946-536: A semantic (meaning) element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a phonetic . However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa. The main logographic system in use today is Chinese characters , used with some modification for the various languages or dialects of China , Japan , and sometimes in Korean , although in South and North Korea ,
2085-512: A syllabic structure, with the tanka being highly regarded in particular. The writing of waka poetry became increasingly important in the Heian period as it became a necessary skill for the aristocracy in both social and courtship settings. The Man'yōshū is the oldest collection of Japanese poetry, written in Japanese with Chinese characters through Man'yōgana and compiling waka poetry from
2224-409: A transitional stage when "novelty" began to appear in the style of the epic poem. Petrarch popularized the sonnet as a poetic form; Giovanni Boccaccio 's Decameron made romance acceptable in prose as well as poetry; François Rabelais rejuvenates satire with Gargantua and Pantagruel ; Michel de Montaigne single-handedly invented the essay and used it to catalog his life and ideas. Perhaps
2363-607: A type of lyric poetry. Chinese poetry increased focus on politics, human suffering, and realism in the mid-Tang dynasty, such as in the works of Du Fu . Chinese poetry diverged into two schools in the early-9th century; poets such as Meng Jiao and Han Yu wrote about the unusual, while poets such as Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen emphasized simplicity. The final years of the Tang dynasty saw the rise of lyric poetry and erotic poetry . Li Shangyin and Wen Tingyun were influential poets during this period. Fictional narrative became prominent in
2502-686: A variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes . Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include Cyrillic , used to write Bulgarian , Russian and Serbian , among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script , from which the Hebrew and the Arabic scripts are descended. The Tifinagh script (Berber languages)
2641-688: Is Kakawin Ramayana from the 9th century, a Javanese localization of the Sanskrit Bhaṭṭikāvya . Mesoamerican literature was typically recorded on codices , though most surviving codices of pre-Columbian literature were written in the Latin alphabet to preserve oral tradition after colonization. Nahuatl literature was divided into cuícatl , which included song and poetry, and tlahtolli , which included prose works of history and discourses. The teocuícatl were divine hymns that were sung to praise
2780-488: Is a set of written symbols that represent consonants and vowels . In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the letters would correspond perfectly to the language's phonemes . Thus, a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However, as languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for,
2919-403: Is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early Harappa after 3500 BC. The script is written from right to left, and sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style. In 2015, the epigrapher Bryan Wells estimated there were around 694 distinct signs. This is above 400, so scholars accept
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#17328840655223058-650: Is co-extensive with uses of writing and the elaboration of activity systems that give rise to and circulate writing. Individual motivations for writing include improvised additional capacity for the limitations of human memory (e.g. to-do lists , recipes , reminders, logbooks , maps , the proper sequence for a complicated task or important ritual ), dissemination of ideas and coordination (e.g. essays , monographs , broadsides , plans , petitions , or manifestos ), creativity and storytelling , maintaining kinship and other social networks, business correspondence regarding goods and services, and life writing (e.g.
3197-545: Is credited with developing a literary tradition of poetry derived from catalogues and genealogies, such as the Megala Erga and the Theogony . Notable writers of religious literature also held similar prominence at the time, but these works have since been lost. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho , who contributed to the development of lyric poetry and was widely popular in antiquity. Ancient Greek plays originate from
3336-477: Is descended from the Libyco-Berber script , which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin. In the history of writing , religious texts or writing have played a special role. For example, some religious text compilations have been some of the earliest popular texts, or even the only written texts in some languages, and in some cases are still highly popular around the world. The first books printed widely using
3475-509: Is explicitly directed toward the learning of writing, but much is focused more on subject learning. Writing systems may be broadly classified according to what units of language are represented by its symbols: alphabets and syllabaries generally represent a language's sounds of speech ( phonemes and syllables respectively)—while logographies represent a language's units of meaning ( words or morphemes ), though these are still associated by readers with their given pronunciations in
3614-668: Is most well known for his play Oedipus Rex , which established an early example of literary irony . Ancient Greek philosophy was developed as the foundation of Western philosophy . Thales of Miletus was the first person in recorded history to engage in Western philosophy. The Ancient Greek philosophical literature was advanced by Plato , who incorporated philosophical debates into dialogues with Socratic questioning . Aristotle , Plato's student, wrote dozens of works on many scientific disciplines. Aristotle also developed early literary criticism and literary theory in his Poetics . In
3753-517: Is not an independent glyph for each syllable. While research into the development of writing during the Neolithic is ongoing, the current consensus is that it first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient Near East . Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around
3892-508: Is not only the main deliverable but also the mode of work itself. Even in occupations not typically associated with writing, routine records management has most employees writing at least some of the time. Some professions are typically associated with writing, such as literary authors, journalists, and technical writers, but writing is pervasive in most modern forms of work, civic participation, household management, and leisure activities. Writing permeates everyday commerce. For example, in
4031-470: Is the act of creating a persistent representation of human language . A writing system uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken language, such as its lexicon and syntax . However, written language may take on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language. Writing is a cognitive and social activity involving neuropsychological and physical processes . The outcome of this activity, also called "writing", and sometimes
4170-699: Is typically published as articles in journals or within book-length monographs . Arguments, experiments, observational data, and other evidence collated in the course of research is represented in writing, and serves as the basis for later work. Data collection and drafting of manuscripts may be supported by grants, which usually require proposals establishing the value of such work and the need for funding. The data and procedures are also typically collected in lab notebooks or other preliminary files. Preprints of potential publications may also be presented at academic or disciplinary conferences or on publicly accessible web servers to gain peer feedback and build interest in
4309-622: The Aeneid closely followed the formula established by Homer. Prominent Latin authors that lived during the early empire included Pliny the Elder , Seneca the Younger , and Emperor Marcus Aurelius . As the Roman Empire grew, Latin literature increasingly came from Spain and Northern Africa. Historical works of the early empire included the epic Pharsalia by Lucan , which followed Caesar's civil war , and
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4448-616: The Annals of Tacitus , which recorded the events of the first century. The Golden Ass by Apuleius was written in the later Empire and is possibly the world's oldest novel. The adoption of Christianity in the Roman Empire became apparent in Latin literature, most notably in the confessional writing of Augustine of Hippo , such as the Confessions . Knowledge traditions in India handed down philosophical gleanings and theological concepts through
4587-559: The Dream Pool Essays (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetized compass . During the Song dynasty, there was also the enormous historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian , compiled into 294 volumes of 3 million written Chinese characters by the year 1084 AD. The Jin dynasty saw advances in popular literature, including Romance of
4726-567: The Zhuangzi are philosophical compilations that serve as the foundation of Taoism. Confucius was a defining figure in ancient Chinese philosophy and politics . He collected the Six Classics as founding texts of Confucianism , and they became the central texts by which other works were compared in Chinese literary scholarship. Confucianism dominated literary tastes in Ancient China starting in
4865-795: The Han dynasty diverged as several branches developed, including short length, paralleled exposition, rhymed exposition, and ancient style, and idealism also became popular during the Han dynasty. The Nineteen Old Poems were written at this time, though how they came about is the subject of debate. Poetry during this period abandoned tetrasyllabic verse in favor of pentasyllabic verse. The ballads of Chu spread through China and became widely popular, often focusing on concepts of inevitable destiny and fate. Political and argumentative literature by government officials dominated Chinese prose during this period, though even these works often engaged in lyricism and metaphor. Jia Yi
5004-511: The Hebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium, with the oldest texts originating from about the eleventh or tenth centuries BCE. They are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. The Old Testament was compiled and edited by various authors over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon was solidified by about
5143-416: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt as autobiographies became more intricate. The role of the king in literature expanded during this period; royal testaments were written from the perspective of the king to his successor, and celebrations of the king and advocacy of strong leadership were included in autobiographies and Instructions . Fiction and analysis of good and evil also developed during this period. During
5282-501: The Narmer Palette , dating to c. 3100 BC , and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based on a much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet . The world's oldest deciphered sentence was found on a seal impression found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen at Abydos, which dates from
5421-459: The New Kingdom of Egypt , the popularity of wisdom literature and educational works persisted, though the use of teachings and stories was prioritized over the use of discourses. Entertainment literature was popular among the nobility during this period, incorporating aspects of narrative myth and folklore, religious hymns, love songs, and praise for the king and the city. Chinese mythology played
5560-491: The Persian mathematician and astronomer Omar Khayyám (1048–1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": verses of four lines. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story. Examples of early Persian proto- science fiction include Al-Farabi 's Opinions of the residents of a splendid city about a utopian society, and elements such as the flying carpet . Medieval Jewish fiction often drew on ancient Jewish legends , and
5699-618: The Popol Vuh , the Chilam Balam , and the Annals of the Cakchiquels that describe the religious beliefs of Mesoamerican cultures. The Renaissance encompassed much of European culture during the early modern period. This period saw a renewed interested in the classical works of Ancient Greece and Rome and a proliferation of artistic and scientific achievement. Literature, as with most forms of art in
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5838-498: The Prudenti Psychomachia began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however, in the hands of the troubadours , whose courtly romances and chanson de geste amused and entertained the upper classes who were their patrons. The First Crusade in 1095 also affected literature. For instance the image of the knight would take on a different significance. The Islamic emphasis on scientific investigation and
5977-486: The Roman Republic , literature took the form of tragedy, comedy, epic, and historical. Livius Andronicus is recognized as the originator of literature in the Latin language, and due to Rome's influence, the development of Latin literature often extended beyond the traditional boundaries of Rome. Plautus was an influential playwright known for his comedies that emphasized humor and popular culture . The late republic saw
6116-528: The Sinai to mine for turquoise and copper , and to quarries northwest of Abu Simbel for gneiss . Trade expeditions were sent south to Punt to obtain malachite , myrrh , and electrum , and archeological finds at Byblos attest to diplomatic expeditions sent to that Phoenician city. Finds bearing the names of several Dynasty V kings at the site of Dorak , near the Sea of Marmara , may be evidence of trade but remain
6255-481: The Sumerian language and Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of ancestral proto-writing systems between 3400 and 3300 BC, with earliest coherent texts from c. 2600 BC . It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or
6394-515: The Warring States period . The sayings of Confucius were later compiled into the Analects by his students. Anthologies were common in Ancient China, and anthologizing was used as a means of literary criticism to determine literary classics. The Classic of Poetry , one of the Six Classics, is the oldest existing anthology of Chinese poetry. It comprises 305 works by anonymous authors dating from
6533-492: The chorus plays of Athens in the 6th century BC as a tradition to honor Dionysus , the god of theater and wine. Greek plays came to be associated with "elaborate costumes, complex choreography, scenic architecture, and the mask". They were often structured as a tetralogy in which three tragedies were followed by a satyr play . Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides were known for their tragedies , while Aristophanes and Menander were known for their comedies . Sophocles
6672-544: The development of writing were driven by pragmatic exigencies like keeping track of produce and other wealth, recording history , maintaining culture , codifying knowledge through curricula and lists of texts deemed to contain foundational knowledge (e.g. The Canon of Medicine ) or artistic value (e.g. the literary canon ), organizing and governing societies through texts including legal codes , census records, contracts , deeds of ownership, taxation , trade agreements , and treaties . As Charles Bazerman explains,
6811-422: The printing press were bibles . Such texts enabled rapid spread and maintenance of societal cohesion, collective identity , motivations, justifications and beliefs that e.g. notably historically supported or enabled large-scale warfare between modern humans . Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty V ) is often combined with Dynasties III , IV and VI under
6950-467: The "marking of signs on stones, clay, paper, and now digital memories—each more portable and rapidly traveling than the previous—provided means for increasingly coordinated and extended action as well as memory across larger groups of people over time and space." For example, around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became
7089-802: The 10th century that realistically portrayed the lives of the aristocracy, and the former is sometimes considered to be the first full-length novel. At the same time, women of the aristocracy began keeping diaries that followed aristocratic life. The Tale of Genji was the next major prose work in Japan, written in the 11th century. Its use of realism and romantic idealization inspired later works of Heian period prose fiction, including historical works such as Eiga Monogatari and Ōkagami ; romantic novels such as The Tale of Sagoromo , Yoru no Nezame , Hamamatsu Chūnagon Monogatari , and Torikaebaya Monogatari ; and short story collections such as Tsutsumi Chūnagon Monogatari . While these stories typically portrayed
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#17328840655227228-516: The 12th to 7th centuries BC. Prior to the collection of these works, poetic tradition in Ancient China was primarily oral. The Chu Ci anthology is a volume of poems from the Warring States period written in Chu and attributed to Qu Yuan . These poems were written as rhapsodies that were meant to be recited with a specific tone rather than sung. The Music Bureau was developed during the Zhou dynasty, establishing
7367-488: The 14th and 15th centuries, poetry such as renga and drama such as noh and kyōgen was written by professional writers under the patronage of the court, temples, or local lords. The literary tradition of Java and the Kawi language is most well known for kakawin poetry. These were narrative poems based on the traditions of Sanskrit poetry, and they often incorporated religious elements. The oldest surviving kakawin
7506-491: The 14th century Western Church as well as established the Tuscan language as the standard Italian language . The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio was published in 1351, and it influenced European literature over the following centuries. Its framing device of ten individuals each telling ten stories introduced the term novella and inspired later works, including Chaucer's Canterbury Tales . The most well known fiction from
7645-520: The 18th century, first by Antoine Galland . Many imitations were written, especially in France. Ferdowsi 's Shahnameh , the national epic of Iran , is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history and the longest epic poem ever written. From Persian culture the book which would, eventually, become the most famous in the west is the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam . The Rubáiyát is a collection of poems by
7784-627: The 3rd century BC. The New Testament was an additional collection of books that supplemented the Hebrew Bible, consisting of the gospels that described Jesus and the epistles written by notable figures of early Christianity . Early Greek literature was composed in dactylic hexameter . Homer is credited with the codification of epic poetry in Ancient Greece with the Iliad and the Odyssey . Hesiod
7923-467: The 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the emergence of civilisations and the beginning of the Bronze Age during the late 4th millennium BC. Cuneiform used to write
8062-430: The 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle bone script is disputed. Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. Proto-Elamite is the oldest known writing system from Iran. In use only briefly ( c. 3200 – c. 2900 BC ), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran, with
8201-559: The Bible . Sanskrit declines in the early 2nd millennium, late works such as the Kathasaritsagara dating to the 11th century, to the benefit of literature composed in Middle Indic vernaculars such as Old Bengali , Old Hindi . Lu Sidao , Xue Daoheng , and Yang Su were notable poets of the early Sui dynasty , with Yang moving away from the dominant traditions of Southern poetry. In
8340-736: The Carving of Dragons and Ranking of Poetry being written at this time. The Sixteen Kingdoms of the Northern dynasties saw little cultural growth due to their instability, and Northern literature of this time was typically influenced by the Southern dynasties. Shanshui poetry also became prominent in Six Dynasties poetry. Ancient literature of the Levant was written in the Northwest Semitic languages ,
8479-575: The Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights ( Arabian Nights ), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade . The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in
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#17328840655228618-639: The Second Dynasty (28th or 27th century BC). There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000. Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire , and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes . Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in
8757-601: The Sui and early Tang dynasties, literature was supported by the various emperors, who commissioned many works and wrote some of their own. Poetry in this period followed the Palace Style until it diverged with the work of the Four Paragons . Wang Changling and Li Bai are recognized among the great poets of High Tang. Landscape poetry and frontier poetry were both influential during the Tang dynasty. Tang poetry also included cí ,
8896-548: The Tang dynasty, written with looser restrictions on form and length. Fiction in the mid-Tang period focused primarily on social commentary and romantic love, and notable authors during this time included Shen Jiji and Yuan Zhen. Collections of stories became more common in the Late Tang period, particularly those of chivalrous tales by authors such as Pei Xing . Popular literature of the time included transformation text, vernacular story, sutra , song, and rhapsody. The style of prose
9035-400: The Wei and Jin dynasties consisted mainly of supernatural folklore, including those presented as historical. This tradition of supernatural fiction continued during the Northern and Southern dynasties with the Records of Light and Shade attributed to Liu Yiqing . Another genre of prose was collections of short biographical or anecdotal impressions, of which only A New Account of the Tales of
9174-470: The Wei dynasty mid-3rd century, addressing political and philosophical concerns directly in their poetry. Chinese poetry developed significantly during the Jin dynasty , incorporating parallelism , prosody , and emotional expression through scenery. Zhang Hua , Lu Ji , and Pan Yue are recognized as the great poets that developed early Western Jin poetry. Zuo Si and Liu Kun were poets in later Western Jin. In Eastern Jin, philosophical poetry went through
9313-409: The Western Chamber . Drama was significantly developed as a literary form in the Yuan dynasty and made up much of the era's fictional works. Variety plays were influential in the Early Yuan period, with Khanbaliq , present-day Beijing , as the cultural center of variety plays. As the 14th century began, variety play writers moved to Hangzhou , though variety plays declined and they did not achieve
9452-419: The World survives. Jian'an poetry developed from the literary tradition of Eastern Han, incorporating idiosyncrasies and strong demonstrations of emotion to express individualism. This movement was led by then-ruler of China Cao Cao . The poetry of Cao Cao consisted of ensemble songs published through the Music Bureau and performed with music. The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove were influential poets in
9591-485: The adoption of Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD. The earliest known hieroglyphs are about 5,200 years old, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called "Scorpion I" (Naqada IIIA period, c. 32nd century BC ) recovered at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) in 1998 or
9730-581: The advancement of their own research, does it become codified as contingently reliable knowledge. News and news reporting are central to citizen engagement and knowledge of many spheres of activity people may be interested in about the state of their community, including the actions and integrity of their governments and government officials, economic trends, natural disasters and responses to them, international geopolitical events, including conflicts, but also sports, entertainment, books, and other leisure activities. While news and newspapers have grown rapidly from
9869-400: The aristocracy, Konjaku Monogatarishū was written in the 12th century, compiling roughly one thousand stories from different walks of life in Japan, China, and India. Japanese literature expanded beyond the aristocracy in the 13th century and became increasingly accessible to lower classes, often through the narration of religious texts such as The Tale of the Heike by blind priests . In
10008-431: The capacities of spoken language by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. written correspondence ) and stored over time (e.g. libraries or other public records). Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise. Any instance of writing involves
10147-626: The capital of Turkmenistan , revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal. The earliest surviving examples of writing in China—inscriptions on oracle bones , usually tortoise plastrons and ox scapulae which were used for divination—date from around 1200 BC, during the Late Shang period. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived. In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of isolated tortoise-shell carvings dating back to
10286-771: The compilation of the Puranas . After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. In the millennium or so that intervened between Rome's fall and the Florentine Renaissance , medieval literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. Although much had been lost to
10425-559: The container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they counted the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects to their incipient system of symbols". The original Mesopotamian writing system
10564-520: The corresponding spoken language. A logography is written using logograms —written characters which represent individual words or morphemes . For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced ka , was also used to represent the syllable ka whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. Many logograms have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of
10703-540: The course of an afternoon, a wholesaler might receive a written inquiry about the availability of a product line, then communicate with suppliers and fabricators through work orders and purchase agreements, correspond via email to affirm shipping availability with a drayage company, write an invoice, and request proof of receipt in the form of a written signature. At a much larger scale, modern systems of finances, banking, and business rest on many forms of written documents—including written regulations, policies, and procedures;
10842-785: The creation of reports and other monitoring documents to make, evaluate, and provide accountability for decisions and operations; the creation and maintenance of records; internal written communications within departments to coordinate work; written communications that comprise work products presented to other departments and to clients; and external communications to clients and the public. Business and financial organizations also rely on many written legal documents, such as contracts, reports to government agencies, tax records, and accounting reports. Financial institutions and markets that hold, transmit, trade, insure, or regulate holdings for clients or other institutions are particularly dependent on written records (though now often in digital form) to maintain
10981-428: The cult of the deity Osiris assumes importance, most notably in the inscriptions found in the tomb of Unas . Amongst non-royal Egyptians of this time, Ptahhotep , vizier to Djedkare Isesi , won fame for his wisdom; The Maxims of Ptahhotep was ascribed to him by its later copyists. Non-royal tombs were also decorated with inscriptions, like the royal ones, but instead of prayers or incantations, biographies of
11120-482: The degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. In most of the alphabets of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on writing just consonants phonemes date back to
11259-693: The dynasty's weakened position in the Jin–Song Wars , while Xin Qiji was a Middle Southern Song poet that wrote on similar topics from a military perspective. Poetic style did not advance significantly in the Late Southern Song, though Yan Yu 's Canglang Shihua was influential in poetic theory. Classical poetry in the Early Jin emphasized emotion, while elegance was emphasized later in the Jin dynasty. Popular fiction
11398-563: The earliest). Linear B , the writing system of the Mycenaean Greeks , has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows (beginning date refers to first attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past): Cretan hieroglyphs were used in Crete from c. 1625 to 1500 BC; Linear A
11537-468: The early 20th century, is the oldest known dated printed book, with a printed date of 868. The method used was block printing . Printing first became widespread in the Northern Song . Northern Song lyric poetry was developed by Yan Shu , Liu Yong , and Zhang Xian , and it became a popular pastime among the lower class. Ouyang Xiu developed the popular style of lyric poetry while Yan Jidao developed
11676-454: The early modern period, was financed through patronage by nobles. Fiction writing was not considered a profession in its own right and was typically undertaken by those who already possessed independent wealth. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century revolutionized European literature. The production of printed books allowed for more uniformity in literary works and the spread of literacy . Religious literature in particular
11815-433: The eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, the changing economics and ability to produce and distribute news have brought about radical and rapid challenges to journalism and the consequent organization of citizen knowledge and engagement. These changes have also created challenges for journalism ethics that have been developed over the past century. Formal education is the social context most strongly associated with
11954-567: The evolution of the works defined above. Early literature is derived from stories told in hunter-gatherer bands through oral tradition , including myth and folklore . Storytelling emerged as the human mind evolved to apply causal reasoning and structure events into a narrative and language , allowing early humans to share information with one another. Early storytelling provided opportunity to learn about dangers and social norms while also entertaining listeners. Myth can be expanded to include all use of patterns and stories to make sense of
12093-639: The fifth to eighth centuries. The Kokin Wakashū was a collection of ninth century waka poetry compiled by imperial command. While the Man'yōshū was varied in the classes and professions of its writers, the poems of the Kokin Wakashū were limited to those of aristocratic poets. The Tales of Ise is a collection of loosely connected poems and narratives based on the life of Ariwara no Narihira . Utsubo Monogatari and Ochikubo Monogatari were early prose works from
12232-497: The gods, while other Nahuatl poetry was sung in celebration of life and friendship, to honor warriors, or to pose philosophical questions. King Nezahualcoyotl of Tetzcoco was a notable poet and songwriter. Literature in the Mayan languages was closely related to oral tradition in which writing guided memorized passages that were often performed. It was highly symbolic and incorporated heavy use of wordplay. Metaphor and imagery involving
12371-500: The group title the Old Kingdom . The Fifth Dynasty pharaohs reigned for approximately 150 years, from the early 25th century BC until the mid 24th century BC. The Fifth Dynasty of Egypt is a group of nine kings ruling Egypt for approximately 150 years in the 25th and 24th centuries BC. The relative succession of kings is not entirely secured as there are contradictions between historical sources and archaeological evidence regarding
12510-445: The help of a rubric, copy-editing, and helping translation . Writing technologies from different eras coexist easily in many homes and workplaces. During the course of a day or even a single episode of writing, for example, a writer might instinctively switch among a pencil, a touchscreen, a text-editor, a whiteboard, a legal pad, and adhesive notes as different purposes arise. As human societies emerged, collective motivations for
12649-612: The hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called abjads , derived from the Arabic word for 'alphabet', or consonantaries . In most of the alphabets of India and Southeast Asia , vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called abugidas . Some abugidas, such as Geʽez and the Canadian Aboriginal syllabics , are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there
12788-595: The integrity of their roles. Many modern systems of government are organized and sanctified through written constitutions at the national and sometimes state or other organizational levels. Written rules and procedures typically guide the operations of the various branches, departments, and other bodies of government, which regularly produce reports and other documents as work products and to account for their actions. In addition to legislatures that draft and pass laws, these laws are administered by an executive branch , which can present further written regulations specifying
12927-481: The king or the divine, while others recorded information for religious practices or medicine. Poetry, proverbs, folktales, love lyrics, and accounts of disputes were all incorporated into Akkadian literature. Literature of the Old Kingdom of Egypt developed directly from practical use during the Fifth Dynasty . Lists of offerings to the gods were rewritten as prayers, and statistical information about state officials
13066-418: The laws and how they are carried out. Governments at different levels also typically maintain written records on citizens concerning identities, life events such as births, deaths, marriages, and divorces, the granting of licenses for controlled activities, criminal charges, traffic offenses, and other penalties small and large, and tax liability and payments. Research undertaken in academic disciplines
13205-441: The learning of writing, and students may carry these particular associations long after leaving school. Alongside the writing that students read (in the forms of textbooks, assigned books, and other instructional materials as well as self-selected books) students do much writing within schools at all levels, on subject exams, in essays, in taking notes, in doing homework, and in formative and summative assessments . Some of this
13344-567: The majority having been excavated at Susa , an ancient city located east of the Tigris and between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers. The Proto-Elamite script is thought to have developed from early cuneiform (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly logographic . Linear Elamite is a writing system attested in a few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It
13483-511: The most controversial and important work of the time period was a treatise printed in Nuremberg , entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium : in it, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus removed the Earth from its privileged position in the universe, which had far-reaching effects, not only in science, but in literature and its approach to humanity, hierarchy, and truth. Writing Writing
13622-507: The natural world was also common. Mayan literature was often religious in nature, including information on religious practices, divination, and the gods. Much of this literature was later condemned as heretical and destroyed by Christian priests. The Dresden Codex , the Paris Codex , and the Madrid Codex are the only surviving pre-Columbian Mayan codices. Notable surviving Mayan texts include
13761-570: The one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the Maya script . The earliest inscription identified as Maya dates to the 3rd century BC. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing. In 2001, archaeologists discovered that there was a civilization in Central Asia that used writing c. 2000 BC . An excavation near Ashgabat ,
13900-447: The phonetic Hangul system is mainly used. Other logographic systems include cuneiform and Maya . A syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent syllables , typically a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone. In some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically similar syllables are not written similarly. For instance,
14039-599: The preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would also affect European literature. Hagiographies , or "lives of the saints ", were frequent among early medieval European texts. The writings of Bede — Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum —and others continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Between Augustine and The Bible , religious authors had numerous aspects of Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation. Thomas Aquinas , more than any other single person,
14178-524: The ravages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained extant: they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as Matter of Rome , Matter of France and Matter of Britain . Around 400 AD,
14317-519: The refined style. Lyric poetry contrasted with the more formal shi poetry that followed canonical literary forms and was used by scholars. Political pressures heavily influenced the poetry of scholars in the Northern Song, as proficiency in older styles was a requirement for scholars to enter into civil service. Politics and Confucianism in particular increasingly influenced poetry in Northern Song. Poets such as Mei Yaochen and Su Shunquin developed
14456-748: The reign of the shadowy Shepseskare . Known rulers in the Fifth Dynasty are listed below. Manetho assigns 248 years of rule to the Fifth Dynasty; however, the pharaohs of this dynasty more probably ruled for approximately 150 years. This estimate varies by both scholar and source. The Horus names and most names of the queens are taken from Dodson and Hilton. Manetho writes that the Dynasty V kings ruled from Elephantine , but archeologists have found evidence clearly showing that their palaces were still located at Ineb-hedj ("White Walls"). As before, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghareh and Wadi Kharit in
14595-512: The rise of Augustan literature and Classical Latin , which was primarily prose and included the works of Cicero and Sallust . Upon the formation of the Roman Empire , political commentary declined and prose went out of favor to be replaced by poetry. Poets such as Virgil , Horace , Propertius , and Ovid are recognized as bringing about the Golden Age of Latin literature. Virgil's epic poem
14734-506: The rise of Buddhism . Classical Sanskrit literature flowers in the Maurya and Gupta periods , roughly spanning the 2nd century BC to the 8th century AD. Classical Tamil literature also emerged in the early historic period dating from 300 BC to 300 AD, and is the earliest secular literature of India, mainly dealing with themes such as love and war. The Gupta period in India sees the flowering of Sanskrit drama , classical Sanskrit poetry and
14873-499: The same prominence. The nanxi was developed as a genre of play at the same time, reflecting the unique political life of the Yuan dynasty in which civil service, infidelity , and inter-clan politics all played a major role. Tale of the Pipa by Gao Ming was an influential nanxi drama. Qu was a common type of poetry in the Yuan dynasty that was used both as a standalone work and part of
15012-446: The script to be logo-syllabic (typically syllabic scripts have about 50–100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates an agglutinative language underlies the script. The Proto-Sinaitic script, in which Proto-Canaanite is believed to have been first written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system
15151-461: The service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. The world's oldest known alphabet appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC. Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at
15290-497: The structure of a play. Two of the earliest Chinese novels, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin , first appeared in the Yuan dynasty. Poetry in the Yuan dynasty remained the primary form of expression for classical writers, though the Song tradition of intellectual poetry was replaced by poetry that expressed strong emotion. Northern Yuan poetry was influenced by the works of Yuan Haowen while Southern Yuan poetry
15429-534: The style of poetry used in the Middle Northern Song. Ouyang Xiu was a prominent literary scholar in Northern Song that refined the mainstream literary style of the time, and Su Shi is said to have perfected it. Chen Yuyi defined the style of Early Southern Song poetry. Lu You was a poet in the Middle Southern Song that wrote extensively about political life in civil service and frustration with
15568-501: The syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar. Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek ( Linear B ), Cherokee , the Ndjuka creole language of Suriname , and the Vai language of Liberia . An alphabet
15707-701: The term cuneiform ), at first only for logograms , but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic Akkadian ( Assyrian and Babylonian ) c. 2600 BC , and then to others such as Elamite , Hattian , Hurrian and Hittite . Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for Ugaritic and Old Persian . With
15846-674: The two traditions of Shruti and Smriti , meaning that which is learnt and that which is experienced , which included the Vedas . It is generally believed that the Puranas are the earliest philosophical writings in Indian history, although linguistic works on Sanskrit existed earlier than 1000 BC. Puranic works such as the Indian epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata , have influenced countless other works, including Balinese Kecak and other performances such as shadow puppetry ( wayang ), and many European works. Pali literature has an important position in
15985-524: The ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil. Advancements in natural language processing and natural language generation have resulted in software capable of producing certain forms of formulaic writing (e.g., weather forecasts and brief sports reporting) without the direct involvement of humans after initial configuration or, more commonly, to be used to support writing processes such as generating initial drafts, producing feedback with
16124-598: The work's first line. Akkadian literature developed in subsequent Mesopotamian societies, such as Babylonia and Assyria , from the third to first millennia BC. During this time, it spread to other areas, including Egypt, Ugarit , and Hattusa . The Akkadian language was influenced by the Sumerian language , and many elements of Sumerian literature were adopted in Akkadian literature. Many works of Akkadian literature were commissioned by kings that had scribes and scholars in their service. Some of these works served to celebrate
16263-479: The work. Prior to official publication, these documents are typically read and evaluated by peer review from appropriate experts, who determine whether the work is of sufficient value and quality to be published. Publication does not establish the claims or findings of work as being authoritatively true, only that they are worth the attention of other specialists. As the work appears in review articles, handbooks, textbooks, or other aggregations, and others cite it in
16402-574: The world, and it may be psychologically intrinsic to humans. Epic poetry is recognized as the pinnacle of ancient literature. These works are long narrative poems that recount the feats of mythic heroes, often said to take place in the nation's early history. The history of writing began independently in different parts of the world, including in Mesopotamia about 3200 BC, in Ancient China about 1250 BC, and in Mesoamerica about 650 BC. Literature
16541-623: Was a case of cultural diffusion . Archaeologist Denise Schmandt-Besserat determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which have been found in the Zagros region of Iran, and cuneiform, the first known writing. Around 8000 BC, Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on
16680-411: Was able to turn theology into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century. Playwriting essentially ceased, except for the mystery plays and the passion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people. Latin continued to be used as a literary language in medieval Europe. Though it
16819-505: Was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Egyptian hieroglyphs . This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks , who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet ,
16958-409: Was affected by the printing press, as churches funded and involved themselves in the printing process. Literary criticism also developed as literary works became more accessible. The form of writing now commonplace across the world—the novel —originated from the early modern period and grew in popularity in the next century. Before the modern novel became established as a form there first had to be
17097-524: Was also spoken, it was primarily learned and expressed through literature, and scientific literature was typically written in Latin. Christianity became increasingly prominent in medieval European literature, also written in Latin. Religious literature in other languages proliferated during the 13th century as those who were not educated in Latin sought religious literature that they could understand. Women in particular were not permitted to learn Latin, and an extensive body of religious literature in many languages
17236-458: Was an essayist known for his emotional political treatises such as The Faults of Qin . Chao Cuo was an essayist known for treatises that were meticulous rather than emotional. Confucianism continued to dictate philosophical works, though a movement of works criticizing contemporary application of Confucianism began with Wang Chong in his Lunheng . Prose literature meant for entertainment also developed during this period. Historical literature
17375-522: Was completed circa 1321. Organized into three parts called cantiche , Divine Comedy is a narrative poem that is regarded as a preeminent work in Italian literature. It follows Dante's journey into three different realms of the dead, Inferno ( Hell ), Purgatorio ( Purgatory ), and Paradiso ( Paradise ), with the Roman poet Virgil and Beatrice , Dante's idealized woman, guiding him. Though Divine Comedy
17514-491: Was derived c. 3200 BC from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC, the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of pictographs . Round and sharp styluses were gradually replaced for writing by wedge-shaped styluses (hence
17653-594: Was expanded into autobiographies . These autobiographies were written to exemplify the virtues of their subjects and often incorporated a free flow style that blended prose and poetry. Kings were not written about beyond clerical recordings, but poetry was performed during the funerals of kings as part of a religious ritual. The Instructions , a form of wisdom literature that was popular during most of Ancient Egyptian history, taught maxims of Ancient Egyptian philosophy that combined pragmatic thought and religious speculation. These literary traditions continued to develop in
17792-424: Was influenced by Yan Yu.he was a very honerable man. Japanese literature first diverged from Chinese literature around the eighth century. Fudoki were eighth century records that were typically written in Chinese and documented both historical and mythological stories. Folk ballads were also common, including those recorded in the fudoki and musical ballads. These ballads were written to be chanted and often had
17931-459: Was largely ignored by the literary world during and a while after its publication, it gained further acclaim in the English-speaking world after British Romanticist poet William Blake and other 19th century Romanticist writers "rediscovered" the poem, influencing later writers such as T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound . The narrative reflects the medieval philosophy of the afterlife as it existed in
18070-518: Was not initially developed during the Tang dynasty. Parallel prose remained popular in the early Tang dynasty, though writers such as Li Bai moved away from strict form that was common at the time. Han Yu promoted the use of classical prose in the style of ancient Confucisionist works. Printing began in Tang dynasty China. A copy of the Diamond Sutra , a key Buddhist text, found sealed in a cave in China in
18209-1181: Was not initially incorporated in writing, as it was primarily used for simpler purposes, such as accounting . Some of the earliest surviving works of literature include The Maxims of Ptahhotep and the Story of Wenamun from Ancient Egypt , Instructions of Shuruppak and Poor Man of Nippur from Mesopotamia, and Classic of Poetry from Ancient China. Sumerian literature is the oldest known literature, written in Sumer . Types of literature were not clearly defined, and all Sumerian literature incorporated poetic aspects. Sumerian poems demonstrate basic elements of poetry, including lines , imagery , and metaphor . Humans, gods, talking animals, and inanimate objects were all incorporated as characters. Suspense and humor were both incorporated into Sumerian stories. These stories were primarily shared orally, though they were also recorded by scribes . Some works were associated with specific musical instruments or contexts and may have been performed in specific settings. Sumerian literature did not use titles , instead being referred to by
18348-555: Was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used. The Cascajal Block , a stone slab with 3,000-year-old proto-writing, was discovered in the Mexican state of Veracruz and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing by approximately 500 years. It is thought to be Olmec . Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica ,
18487-525: Was revolutionized by the Records of the Grand Historian , the first general history of ancient times and the largest work of literature to that point in time. Centralism declined during the Six Dynasties period, and Confucianism lost influence as a predominating ideology. This caused the rise of many local traditions of philosophical literature, including that of Taoist and Buddhist ideas. Prose fiction during
18626-407: Was typically performed in the Song dynasty, made up primarily of small talk fiction and historical tales. Classical prose fiction in the Song dynasty often sacrificed linguistic quality and imagination for plain language and moral teaching. Zaju variety plays developed during the Song dynasty as a predecessor to drama. The scientist, statesman, and general Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was the author of
18765-417: Was used for a very brief period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipher the script, most notably Walther Hinz [ de ] and Piero Meriggi . The Elamite cuneiform script
18904-501: Was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian cuneiform. At any given point within this period, the Elamite cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, and over this entire period only 206 total signs were used. This is far fewer than most other cuneiform scripts. Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of Crete (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at
19043-647: Was used in the Aegean Islands ( Kea , Kythera , Melos , Thera ), and the Greek mainland ( Laconia ) from c. 18th century to 1450 BC; and Linear B was used in Crete ( Knossos ), and mainland ( Pylos , Mycenae , Thebes , Tiryns ) from c. 1375 to 1200 BC. Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Indus Valley Civilization (which spanned modern-day Pakistan and North India ) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. Despite attempts at decipherments and claims, it
19182-563: Was written by women at this time. Early Medieval literature in England was written in Old English , which is not mutually intelligible with modern English. Works of this time include the epic poem Beowulf and Arthurian fantasy based on the legendary character of King Arthur . Literature in the modern English language began with Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, known for The Canterbury Tales . The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri
19321-822: Was written in a variety of languages including Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic . Liturgical Jewish poetry in Hebrew flourished in Palestine in the seventh and eighth centuries with the writings of Yose ben Yose , Yanai , and Eleazar Kalir Later Jewish poets in Spain, Provençal, and Italy wrote both religious and secular poems in Hebrew; particularly prominent poets were the Spanish Jewish poets Solomon ibn Gabirol and Yehuda Halevi . In addition to poetry and fiction, medieval Jewish literature also includes philosophical literature , mystical (Kabbalistic) literature , ethical (musar) literature , legal (halakhic) literature, and commentaries on
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