Misplaced Pages

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49-509: According to Petrie (Letter to Larcom, Aug. 1837), the name may mean 'Ryefort' (it appears as Lios a' tSeagail, seagail meaning rye in Irish , in early maps). However lios in Irish refers generally to a court or enclosed area, so it may be that the name originally referred to the area enclosed by the dolmens, on which Listoghil stands, rather than the cairn itself. Listoghil stands 59m above sea level at

98-414: A biennial . Depending on environmental conditions and variety it reaches 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in height. Its leaves are blue-green, long, and pointed. The seeds are carried in a curved head or spike some 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8 to 5.9 in) long. The head is composed of many spikelets , each of which holds two small flowers; the spikelets alternate left and right up

147-596: A Balkan language. The English name rye derives from Old English ryge , related to Dutch rogge , German Roggen , and Russian рожь rožʹ , again all with the same meaning. Rye is one of several cereals that grow wild in the Levant , central and eastern Turkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria suggests that rye

196-573: A house paint in Sweden. Plant breeders, starting in the 19th century in Germany and Scotland, but mainly from the 1950s, worked to develop a hybrid cereal with the best qualities of wheat and rye, now called triticale . Modern triticales are hexaploid with six sets of chromosomes; they are used to produce millions of tons of cereal annually. Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity, which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example,

245-607: A modern astronomical cross-quarter day . But the alignment with the axis of the chamber and the illumination of the chamber by sunlight coincides to the day with that of another Neolithic passage tomb, the Mound of the Hostages at the heart of the Tara complex. 54°15′03″N 8°31′09″W  /  54.25083°N 8.51917°W  / 54.25083; -8.51917 Rye Secale fragile M.Bieb. Rye ( Secale cereale )

294-696: A risk factor for cardiovascular diseases . Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fibre grains, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). Consuming breakfast cereals containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. Like wheat, barley, and their hybrids and derivatives, rye contains glutens and related prolamines, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders , such as celiac disease , non-celiac gluten sensitivity , and wheat allergy , among others. Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate rye or barley. Rye grain

343-499: A risk if food safety vigilance breaks down. After an absence of 60 years, stem rust ( Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici ) has returned to Europe in the 2020s. Areas affected include Germany , Russia ( Western Siberia ), Spain , and Sweden . Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, and eastwards into central and northern Russia. Rye

392-456: A sister clade with Poeae and Aveneae ( Oats ). Inter-generic gene flow characterized these taxa from the early stages. For example, Poeae and Aveneae share a mtDNA genetic marker with barley and 10 other members of Triticeae, whereas all 19 genera of Triticeae bear a wheat marker along with Bromeae. Genera within Triticeae contain diploid , allotetraploid and/or allohexaploid genomes,

441-466: A speltoid goatgrass x basal wheat species Triticum boeoticum with strains in the middle eastern region giving rise to cultivated emmer wheat. Hybridization of tetraploid wheat with Ae. tauschii produced a hulled wheat similar to spelt, suggesting T. spelta is basal. The tauschii species can be subdivided into subspecies tauschii (eastern Turkey to China or Pakistan) and strangulata (Caucasus to S. Caspian, N. Iran). The D genome of bread wheat

490-493: A variety of herbivorous insects can seriously affect plant health. Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus. Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in ergotism , which causes convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics. Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated ergotism, but it remains

539-431: Is a grass grown extensively as a grain , a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe ( Triticeae ) which includes

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588-602: Is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of essential nutrients , including dietary fiber , B vitamins , such as thiamine and niacin (each at 25% DV), and several dietary minerals . Highest micronutrient contents are for manganese (130% DV) and phosphorus (27% DV) (table). According to Health Canada and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration , consuming at least 4 grams (0.14 oz) per day of rye beta-glucan or 0.65 grams (0.023 oz) per serving of soluble fiber can lower levels of blood cholesterol ,

637-708: Is also grown in North America, in South America including Argentina, in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), in Turkey, and in northern China. Production levels of rye have fallen since 1992 in most of the producing nations, as of 2022 ; for instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 metric tons in 1992 to 2.2 metric tons in 2022. World trade of rye is low compared with other grains such as wheat. The total export of rye for 2016

686-619: Is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used as a cover crop to prevent the growth of winter-hardy weeds. Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavy clay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can tolerate pH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drained loam or clay-loam soils. As for temperature,

735-450: Is closer to A.t. strangulata than A.t. tauschii . It is suggested that Ae. tauschii underwent rapid selective evolution prior to combining with tetraploid wheat. Intense use of wild Triticeae can be seen in the Levant as early as 23,000 years ago. This site, Ohala II (Israel), also shows that Triticeae grains were processed and cooked. Many cultivars appear to have been domesticated in

784-523: Is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals, such as snakes, turtles, and frogs. The classical scholar Carl A. P. Ruck writes that the Roggenmutter was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into

833-408: Is larger than its satellites, being about 34m in diameter; the satellites average about 15m. Queen Maeve's cairn, on Knocknarea Mountain, is twice the diameter, and stands at about 10 m high. Writings by Charles Elcock from the 1880s describe workmen removing the stones for 'road metal'. Only when quarrymen uncovered the burial chamber in the middle of the mound did its destruction end. By the end of

882-507: Is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE. It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as a secondary crop , meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry , and was only later cultivated in its own right. Archeological evidence of this grain has been found in Roman contexts along

931-486: Is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist . The rye genus Secale is in the grass tribe Triticeae , which contains other cereals such as barley ( Hordeum ) and wheat ( Triticum ). The generic name Secale , related to Italian segale and French seigle meaning "rye", is of unknown origin but may derive from

980-461: Is refined into a flour high in gliadin but low in glutenin and rich in soluble fiber. Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g. pericarp , testa and aleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight). Rye bread , including pumpernickel , is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe. In Scandinavia, rye

1029-566: Is widely used to make crispbread ( Knäckebröd ); in the Middle Ages it was a staple food in the region, and it remains popular in the 21st century. Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such as rye whiskey and rye beer . The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beverage kvass is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt. Rye is a useful forage crop in cool climates; it grows vigorously and provides plentiful fodder for grazing animals, or green manure to improve

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1078-484: The Boyne valley , consisting of concentric circular carvings, can be seen on the front side of the roof slab (this is visible only in certain lighting conditions). A symbol described by Julian Cope as 'a strangely distorted tryfuss' has been carved on a stone inside. Bone and carbon material from Listoghil was carbon dated to approximately 3500 BC. The human bones found there were a mixture of cremated , and un-cremated bones;

1127-599: The Rhine and the Danube and in Ireland and Britain. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation". He said it was mixed with spelt "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach". Rye is a tall grass grown for its seeds; it can be an annual or

1176-673: The Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist , a field spirit shaped like a wolf . The Roggenwolf steals children and feeds on them. The last grain heads are often left at their place as a sacrifice for the agricultural spirits. In contrast, the Roggenmuhme or Roggenmutter ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar and may end in tips of iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. The Roggenmuhme

1225-465: The 19th century the tomb had been investigated by antiquarians of the period who recorded finding 'bones of horses', charred wood and a worked flint javelin head. Some materials from this tomb are in the Alnwick Castle collection In the late 1990s Goran Burenhult, a Swedish archaeologist, partly excavated Listoghil. He dated bone and carbon material, and exposed the still-intact kerb . The monument

1274-500: The capacity to form allopolyploid genomes varies within the tribe. In this tribe, the majority of diploid species tested are closely related to Aegilops , the more distal members (earliest branch points) include Hordeum (Barley), Eremian , Psathyrostachys . The broad distribution of cultivars within the Tribe and the properties of the proteins have implication in the treatment of certain digestive diseases and autoimmune disorders. One of

1323-405: The cereals wheat and barley . Rye grain is used for bread , beer , rye whiskey , and animal fodder . In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale , combines the qualities of the two parent crops and

1372-415: The crop can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production of antifreeze polypeptides (different from those produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye. Rye is a common, unwanted invader of winter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat. Pests including the nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci and

1421-766: The earliest branches in Triticeae, to Pseudoroegeneria , produces the genome StSt and another Hordeum then genome = HH. Allotetraploid combinations of Pseudoroegeneria and Hordeum and are seen in Elmyus (HHStSt), but also shows introgression from Australian and Agropyron wheatgrasses. Elymus contains mostly Pseudoroegeneria mtDNA. Many genera and species of Triticeae are allopolyploids, having more chromosomes than seen in typical diploids. Typical allopolyploids are tetraploid or hexaploid, XXYY or XXYYZZ. The creation of polyploid species results from natural random events tolerated by polyploid-capable plants. Natural allopolyploid plants may have selective advantages and some may permit

1470-558: The fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of the Roggenmutter ". The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known as Wulfzähne (wolf teeth). Triticeae See text. Triticeae is a botanical tribe within the subfamily Pooideae of grasses that includes genera with many domesticated species. Major crop genera found in this tribe include wheat (see wheat taxonomy ), barley , and rye ; crops in other genera include some for human consumption, and others used for animal feed or rangeland protection. Among

1519-422: The final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time. Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying. Rye is harvested like wheat with a combine harvester , which cuts the plants, threshes and winnows

Listoghil - Misplaced Pages Continue

1568-617: The geographic centre of the Cúil Irra Peninsula , c.3 km from Sligo town. Set close to the highest point in the cluster of monuments, along a low ridge, it acts as the focus of the Carrowmore passage tomb complex. To the west is Knocknarea with Miosgán Médhbh and to the east the two great cairns on Cairns hill. Listoghil is surrounded - and generally, faced - by a cluster of 'dolmen circles', also classified as passage tombs by archaeologists. These were open and uncovered. Listoghil

1617-401: The grain, and releases the straw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in local silos or transported to regional grain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era of mechanised agriculture , rye harvesting was a manual task performed with scythes or sickles . Winter rye

1666-573: The head. Since the Middle Ages , people have cultivated rye widely in Central and Eastern Europe . It serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the France–Germany border and north of Hungary . In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands. Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where

1715-644: The older, smaller tombs around it generally contain burnt bones. Extensive burning took place on the area of the site before the chamber was erected. Listoghil points at a low saddle-like formation in the Ballygawley Mountains, 6.5 km to the east-southeast. Sunrise in this position coincides with the start and the end of winter, which are traditionally important seasonal festivals in the Gaelic calendar . This happens on 31 October and on 10 February in our modern calendar, dates which do not coincide exactly with

1764-449: The pollination abilities of wheat can be improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increases the size of the wheat anther and the amount of pollen. The 1R chromosome is the source of many crop disease resistance genes . Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat. AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to both lodging and shattering . Rye

1813-498: The purpose of attracting game animals so that they could be hunted close to settlements. Today, rye and other Triticeae cultivars are used to graze animals, particularly cattle. Rye grasses in the New World have been used selectively as fodder, but also to protect grasslands without the introduction of invasive Old World species. Glutens (storage proteins) in the Triticeae tribe have been linked to gluten-sensitive diseases . While it

1862-468: The recombination of distantly related genetic material. Poulard wheat is an example of a stable allotetraploid wheat. The Secale (domesticated rye) may be a very early branch from the goat grass clad (or goat grasses are a branch of early rye grasses), as branch these are almost contemporary with the branching between monoploid wheat and Aegilops tauschii . Studies in Anatolia now suggest Rye ( Secale )

1911-561: The region of the upper Fertile Crescent, Levant and central Anatolia. More recent evidence suggests that cultivation of wheat from emmer's wheat required a longer period with wild seeding maintaining a presence in archaeological finds. Triticeae has a pastoral component that some contend goes back to the Neolithic period and is referred to as the Garden Hunting Hypothesis . In this hypothesis grains could be planted or shared for

1960-414: The soil has sand or peat . Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains, surviving snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Winter rye is the most popular: it is planted and begins to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop rapidly. This allows it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated. The physical properties of rye affect attributes of

2009-461: The soil. It forms a good cover crop in winter with its rapid growth and deep roots. Rye straw is used as livestock bedding , despite the risk of ergot poisoning. It is used on a small scale to make crafts such as corn dollies . More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetener xylitol . Rye flour is mixed with linseed oil and iron oxide to make traditional Falun red paint, widely used as

Listoghil - Misplaced Pages Continue

2058-468: The taxa. The generic placement may be more a matter of nomenclature. Genera Aegilops and Triticum are very closely related; as the adjacent image illustrates, the Aegilops species occupy most of the basal branch points in bread wheat evolution indicating that genus Triticum evolved from Aegilops after an estimated 4 million years ago. The divergence of the genomes is followed by allotetraploidization of

2107-632: The world's cultivated species, this tribe has some of the most complex genetic histories. An example is bread wheat, which contains the genomes of three species with only one being a wheat Triticum species. Seed storage proteins in the Triticeae are implicated in various food allergies and intolerances. Genera recognized in Triticeae according to Robert Soreng et al.: Various species are cultivated for pastoral purposes or to protect fallow land from opportunistic or invasive species Many barley cultivars Ryes (Wheat) Triticeae and its sister tribe Bromeae (bromes or cheat grasses) when joined form

2156-593: Was $ 186 million compared with $ 30.1 billion for wheat. Poland consumes the most rye per person at 32.4 kg (71 lb) per capita (2009), followed by the Nordic and Baltic countries. The EU in general is around 5.6 kg (12 lb) per capita. The entire world only consumes 0.9 kg (2 lb) per capita. Raw rye contains 11% water, 76% carbohydrates , 10% protein , and 2% fat (table). A 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference amount of rye provides 1,410 kilojoules (338 kilocalories) of food energy , and

2205-575: Was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago. However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff . Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number of Neolithic sites in Asia Minor ( Anatolia , now Turkey), such as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III near Çatalhöyük , but

2254-489: Was cultivated, but not domesticated, prior to the holocene and to evidence for the cultivation of wheat. As climate changed the favorability of Secale declined. At that time other strains of barley and wheat may have been cultivated, but humans did little to change them. [REDACTED] Aegilops appears to be basal to several taxa such as Triticum , Amblyopyrum , and Crithopsis . Certain species such as Aegilops speltoides could potentially represent core variants of

2303-686: Was once believed that oats carried similar potentials, recent studies indicate that most oat sensitivity is the result of contamination. Triticeae glutens studies are important in determining the links between gluten and gastrointestinal, allergic, and autoimmune diseases. Some of the recently discovered biochemical and immunochemical properties of these proteins suggest they evolved for protection against dedicated or continuous consumption by mammalian seed-eaters. One recent publication even raises doubts about wheat's safety for anyone to eat. Overlapping properties with regard to food preparation have made these proteins much more useful as cereal cultivars, and

2352-456: Was subsequently restored by the Office of Public Works . Listoghil now consists of a 4 m tall, 34 m diameter cairn . Access to the central chamber - via a 13 m artificial avenue of gabions - is possible. The chamber at the heart of the mound is a dolmen-like structure, with 6 orthostats . A single limestone slab - tilted at 6.1° - crowns the chamber. A rare example of Irish megalithic art outside of

2401-428: Was the gene donor of Sr31 – a stem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat. The characteristics of S. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye, S. montanum , to produce S. cereanum , which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein. In European folklore,

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