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56-569: The True Whig Party ( TWP ), also known as the Liberian Whig Party ( LWP ), is the oldest political party in Liberia and Africa as a whole. Founded in 1869 by primarily darker-skinned Americo-Liberians in rural areas, its historic rival was the Republican Party . Following the decline of the latter, it dominated Liberian politics from 1878 until 1980. The nation was virtually governed as

112-414: A Methodist preacher. Tubman's father was a strict disciplinarian. He required his five children to attend daily family prayer services, and to sleep on the floor because he thought beds were too soft and "degrading to character development". Tubman's mother, Elizabeth Rebecca (née Barnes) Tubman, was from Atlanta , Georgia . Alexander's parents, Sylvia and William Shadrach Tubman, were freedmen, part of

168-709: A one-party state under the TWP, although opposition parties were never outlawed. Initially, its ideology was strongly influenced by that of the United States Whig Party (from which it took its name). The elephant mascot was taken from the Republican Party , the successor of the Whigs. Much of the TWP's support came from the Americo-Liberian community who held an influential position over Liberian politics and society. The TWP's long term leader and President William Tubman

224-483: A group of 69 freed slaves whose transportation to Liberia in 1844 was paid by their former mistress Emily Harvie Thomas Tubman , a widow and philanthropist in Augusta, Georgia . Emily Tubman was instrumental in the manumission of enslaved African Americans and paying for their transportation to Liberia for "repatriation". Initially, she had great difficulty freeing her slaves in ante-bellum Georgia. Despite appeals to

280-595: A long-term relationship with her. As World War II gave way to the Cold War , the United States viewed Liberia as an ideal post from which to fight the spread of communism through Africa . Under Tubman, Liberia voted with the U.S. on most key matters at the United Nations, although it sometimes sided with other African states, particularly on decolonization and anti-apartheid issues. Tubman gradually extended ties to

336-462: A mystical illusion. A U.S Peace Corps program began in Liberia which would run until 1990 when Civil war broke out. Tubman's government was critical of communism, and avoided establishing diplomatic relations with most of the communist countries (Yugoslavia, which was regarded highly by the Liberian government, was the lone exception); however, Liberia did exchange trade and goodwill missions with

392-586: A nation reliant on international businesses and governments. He initiated some socially liberal reforms, pledged stricter regulation of foreign businesses operating in Liberia, granted official recognition status to opposition parties and tried to re-balance economic disparities between Americo-Liberians and native ethnic tribes. He also pursued open diplomatic and economic relationships with the Soviet Union and shifted Liberia's focus to other African nations as opposed to

448-604: A safe and suitable option. After arriving in Liberia, this group of freedmen took "Tubman" as their surname and settled together. They named their community Tubman Hill after their benefactress. President of Liberia Government constitutional referendum economic policy legacy William Tubman, the second son, went to primary school in Harper, followed by the Methodist Cape Palmas Seminary , and Harper County High School. Beginning in 1910, when he

504-464: A second term at Presidential level. However, the party had strife over its leadership five months before the election, and it failed to nominate any candidate for any legislative seat and did not compete as a result. In 2013, members of the TWP became embroiled in a dispute over Edward J. Roye Building in Monrovia which had been constructed as the party headquarters. The building had been appropriated by

560-458: A small minority of the population, constituted nearly 100% of the citizens able to vote. It primarily represented them, often working in tandem with the Masonic Order of Liberia . The True Whig Party was initially formed as an alliance of "mostly dark-skinned upriver planters and the dark-skinned faction among the coastal merchants", opposed to the lighter-skinned mulatto elite represented by

616-576: A successor to President Edwin Barclay . Six candidates ran for office; the two favorites were Tubman and Foreign Minister Clarence L. Simpson . Tubman was elected president on 4 May 1943, at the age of 48, and was inaugurated 3 January 1944. While the United States, its ally, began to base military operations in the country after it entered World War II, Liberia did not declare war on Germany and Japan until 27 January 1944. In April 1944, Liberia joined

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672-534: A tax collector, teacher, and as colonel in a militia . He was a Freemason and belonged to lodges of Prince Hall Freemasonry . Having joined the True Whig Party (TWP), the dominant party of Liberia since 1878, Tubman began his career in politics. In 1923, aged 28, he was elected to the Senate of Liberia from Maryland County , holding the record as the youngest senator in the history of Liberia. Identifying as

728-444: Is different from Wikidata William Tubman Tubman is regarded as the "father of modern Liberia" in that during his presidency sufficient foreign investment was attracted to modernize the country's economy and infrastructure. During his tenure, Liberia experienced a period of prosperity. He also led a policy of national unification in order to reduce the social and political differences between his fellow Americo-Liberians and

784-684: The 2017 election but ended up gaining 0.96% of the vote. On August 31, 2020, a political alliance containing seven constituent parties, including the TWP, known as the Rainbow Alliance (RA) was certified by the National Elections Commission (NEC). Goodridge served as the interim chairman of the alliance. The RA unsuccessfully contested the 2020 Senate elections with 10 candidates. The RA held its first national convention on October 29, 2022, in Paynesville . Interim Chairman Goodridge

840-693: The Asian-African Conference of 1955, and the First Conference of Independent African States in Accra , organized in 1958 by Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. In 1959, Tubman organized the Second Conference of African States. In 1951 United States and Liberia signed a mutual agreement of defense. Following that in 1957 The U.S. erects a Voice of America relay facility, one of several U.S. communications facilities to be placed on Liberian soil during

896-537: The Axis powers . Liberian policy is committed to the concept of a free enterprise system, democracy, and a pragmatic search for solutions to problems of multinational existence. We envisage a synthesis composed of individual states retaining their own way of life, but united by mutual exchanges of peoples, goods and ideas, by pacts of non-aggression, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, and of perpetual peace. In foreign policy, Tubman aligned his country with

952-451: The Cold War . In 1985, all political opposition (including the TWP) were banned following a coup attempt against Doe. In 1991, the party faced a challenge from a new group, which identified as the "National True Whig Party of Liberia." TWP chairman Momo Fahnbulleh Jones threatened legal action to induce the newly founded party to change its name. The TWP was officially reconstituted in 2005 under

1008-597: The Georgia State Legislature and financial donations to the University of Georgia , her efforts to manumit numerous slaves were disapproved. After the Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831, the state legislature had greatly restricted manumissions, requiring a legislative act for each, and posting of expensive bonds by the owner to guarantee the free black would leave the state within a short period of time. Tubman sought

1064-552: The League of Nations , a five-year U.S. and British boycott of Liberia followed by the resignation of President Charles D. B. King . Despite this dispute, the West generally considered the True Whig Party as a stabilizing, unthreatening force in the period after. The US and Britain later invested extensively in the nation under William Tubman 's long period of rule (1944–1971). Under

1120-503: The Port of Monrovia into a free port to encourage trade. By early 1960, Liberia began to enjoy its first era of prosperity, thanks in part to Tubman's policies and implementation of development. It was during this time that Tubman became regarded as a pro- Western , stabilizing influence in West Africa , at a period when other countries were achieving independence—often amid violence. During

1176-524: The Republican Party . The party first came to power after Edward James Roye won the 1869 Liberian general election and was sworn in as president the following year. The Republican Party had tended to be supported by Americo-Liberians of mixed African and European ancestry while darker skinned Americo-Liberians initially rallied around the TWP, however as the Republican Party began to decline in influence most Americo-Liberians transferred their support to

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1232-512: The Soviet Union and other Eastern European states. When Tubman was appointed to the Supreme Court in the 1930s, Liberia was seriously underdeveloped, lacking basic infrastructure of roads, railways, and sanitation systems. Tubman said that Liberia had never received the "benefits of colonization", by which he meant the investment by a wealthy major power to develop the infrastructure of the country. He established an economic policy, known as

1288-531: The indigenous Liberians . William Tubman was born on 29 November 1895, in Harper which is located in southeastern Liberia. At birth he was one of 5 children who had grown up poor. He was also a descendant of people who were formerly enslaved in the U.S. Tubman's grandfather, Alexander Tubman, was a stonemason , general in the Liberian army, and a former Speaker of the Liberian House of Representatives , as well as

1344-422: The " porte ouverte " ("open door") , to attract foreign investment. Working to facilitate and encourage foreign businesses to locate in Liberia, he encouraged development. Between 1944 and 1970, the value of foreign investments, mainly from the United States, increased by 200%. From 1950 to 1960, Liberia experienced an average annual growth of 11.5%. With the expansion of the economy, Tubman gained revenues for

1400-525: The "Convivial Cannibal from the Downcoast Hinterlands ," he fought for constitutional rights for the members of indigenous tribal groups , who comprised the overwhelming number of Liberians. Re-elected as senator in 1929, Tubman became the legal adviser to vice president Allen Yancy . He resigned from the Senate in 1931 to defend Liberia before the League of Nations amid allegations that his country

1456-443: The 1960s, Tubman was courted by many Western politicians, notably U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson . In the past, the bulk of Liberia's production depended on rubber . But with the modernization of the state's infrastructure at the hands of Tubman, Liberia started to use its other national resources. Several Americo-Liberian nationalities, German, and Swedish companies became involved in the exploitation of iron mines—making Liberia

1512-577: The Allied cause by signing the Declaration by United Nations . Choosing to sever diplomatic relations with Germany and expel German citizens from Liberia was a difficult decision for Tubman for economic and social reasons: (1) German merchants were integral to the Liberian economy; (2) Germany was Liberia's major trading partner; and (3), most of the doctors in Liberia were Germans. Under the above declaration, Tubman agreed to expel all German residents and oppose

1568-625: The Cold War. In 1961, following a Pan-African conference held in Monrovia , Tubman helped to found the African Union. This association of "moderate" African leaders worked for gradual unification of Africa, unlike the "revolutionary" group based at Casablanca . We wage no war against socialism if it is kept within the territories and among people that are so inclined, but we shall fight till death any attempt to impose and force upon us what we consider

1624-1987: The Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands  / Ceuta  / Melilla    (Spain) Madeira   (Portugal) Mayotte  / Réunion   (France) Saint Helena  / Ascension Island  / Tristan da Cunha   (United Kingdom) Western Sahara Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_political_parties_in_Liberia&oldid=1223074464 " Categories : Lists of political parties by country Political parties in Liberia Liberia politics-related lists Lists of political parties in Africa Lists of organizations based in Liberia Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description

1680-549: The Liberian General Services Agency which provoked anger among TWP members who stated they are still the rightful owners and that Chairman of the Council of State David D. Kpormakpor had decreed that it should be returned to the TWP's possession. In 2015, the TWP appointed former government information minister Reginald Goodridge as its new chairman and was successfully registered to stand as an individual party for

1736-589: The Soviet bloc, but he supported the United States on the Vietnam War , as did his successor, William R. Tolbert. Tubman was criticized for being too influenced by the United States and its interests in the area including its opposition to communism, and for repressing political opposition. His former ally and later political opponent S. David Coleman and his son John were hunted down and killed by Liberian soldiers for allegedly plotting to overthrow him. The Coleman funeral

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1792-540: The TWP's support and membership came from the Americo-Liberian population. Although Liberia did not declare war on Germany and Japan until 1944, the party supported the Allies against the Axis powers during the Second World War . Under Tubman, the party was also anti-communist during the height of the Cold War. It later supported America's foreign policy during the Vietnam War and maintained friendly relations with

1848-713: The TWP. After Anthony W. Gardiner was elected president in 1878, the TWP went on to govern Liberia for over a century. While opposition parties were never made illegal and Liberia was not classed as a dictatorship, the TWP more or less ran the country as a one party state and held a monopoly on Liberian politics. The party was accused of endorsing systems of forced labor . In 1930 they sent "contract migrant laborers", under conditions tantamount to slavery, to Spanish colonists on Fernando Pó in Spanish Guinea (now Bioko in Equatorial Guinea ). This led to an investigation by

1904-3058: The Transformation of Liberia Collaborating Political Parties Free Democratic Party Freedom Alliance Party of Liberia Labor Party of Liberia Liberia Education and Development Party Liberia Equal Rights Party Liberia Unification Party Liberian Action Party Liberia Destiny Party Movement for Justice in Africa National Democratic Party of Liberia National Party of Liberia National Reformation Party National Union for Democratic Progress National Vision Party of Liberia New Deal Movement Progressive Alliance of Liberia Progressive Democratic Party Republican Party Reformed United Liberia Party Politics portal List of political parties Politics of Liberia v t e Liberia   articles History Colonization (1821–1847) Americo-Liberian rule (1847–1980) 1871 coup d'état 1980 coup d'état Samuel Doe era (1980–1989) 1985 coup attempt First Civil War (1989–1997) 1994 coup attempt 1998 Monrovia clashes Second Civil War (1999–2003) 2014 Ebola virus epidemic 2020 coronavirus pandemic Geography Cities Borders Environmental issues ( Climate change ) Forests Islands Mountains Rivers Wildlife Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Cabinet Foreign relations Government ministries Human rights LGBT Judiciary Supreme Court Chief Justice Military Chief of Staff Parliament Police Political parties President Vice President Economy Agriculture Central bank Communications Dollar (currency) Energy Mining Tourism Transport Society Abortion Corruption Crime Demographics Education Ethnic groups Gender inequality Health Languages Public holidays Religion Squatting Women Culture Cinema Coat of arms Cuisine Flag Media Music Polygamy Sport Outline Index Category Portal v t e List of political parties in Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of

1960-504: The Transformation of Liberia (COTOL) ahead of the 2005 general election before de-coalition and winning fewer votes at the 2017 elections. In 2020 it became part of the Rainbow Alliance (RA). The True Whig Party was founded in the township of Clay-Ashland in 1869 as a reorganised version of the Opposition Party. It presided over a society in which black American settlers and their descendants, known as Americo-Liberians , though

2016-584: The US, which he hailed as "Our strongest, closest, and most reliable friend." In June 1944, he and former president, Edwin Barclay , traveled to the White House as guests of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and became the first African heads of state to be received there. Following the war, which resulted in an anti-colonial movement on the African continent, Tubman strengthened ties among fellow Africans by participating in

2072-680: The West. However, some of these reforms were reversed following the Maryland County ritual killings and the Rice Riots in which Tolbert called for the arrest of opposition leaders. Opposition parties also accused Tolbert of using corruption and political nepotism to retain power while traditionalist members of the TWP and some of Tolbert's cabinet were angered by his initiative of appointing native Liberians into government positions which they saw as usurping their position. The party lost power after Tolbert

2128-418: The country. The new government subsequently restricted activities of the TWP and it lost its official status; the vast majority of its members and supporters left the party, but other TWP members vowed to continue and it struggled on as a minor rump party without official recognition. Members of indigenous groups began to exert more political power following the coup, in keeping with their dominance in number of

2184-465: The first source of iron in Africa, and the fourth worldwide. Tubman wanted to diversify the economy, rather than basing it on rubber and iron resources, which made up 90% of the country's exports. He encouraged the development of coffee plantations, palm oil , sugar cane , and especially rice cultivation in 1966 (with the help of Taiwan ). In his personal life, Tubman courted Amy Ashwood Garvey , and had

2240-403: The 💕 This article lists political parties in Liberia . Liberia has a multi-party system with numerous political parties , in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and parties must work with each other to form coalition governments . Membership in parties tends to be fluid, as the party leader at the time holds significant influence over the ideology

2296-430: The government to construct and modernize infrastructure: the streets of Monrovia were paved, a public sanitation system was installed, hospitals were built, and a literacy program was launched in 1948. During Tubman's administration, several thousand kilometers of roads were built, as was a railway line to connect the iron mines to the coast for transport of this commodity for export. During this period, he transformed

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2352-688: The help of her friend and mentor, Henry Clay of Kentucky, president of the American Colonization Society . This organization, made up of both abolitionists and slaveholders, had proposed colonization in Africa as a solution for freedmen, rather than allowing them to remain in the United States. Their presence was considered to unsettle slaves in the South, and in both the North and South, lower-class whites resented competing with them for jobs. Clay assured her that sending her former slaves to Liberia would be

2408-501: The leadership and Presidency of William Tubman , the TWP took a pro-American stance in international policy, encouraged foreign investment, promoted industrialization and embarked on a mass modernization program of Liberia's domestic infrastructure. This led to a period of economic prosperity during the 1960s, was credited with putting Liberia on the map and establishing the country as a modern power in Africa. Although opponents of Tubman's government accused it of being authoritarian, Liberia

2464-563: The leadership of Peter Vuku. The TWP participated in the 2005 general election as part of the Coalition for the Transformation of Liberia (COTOL). The COTOL coalition won eight seats but was dissolved the next year after some of its members left to join the ruling Unity Party . The TWP registered to compete as an individual party for the House of Representatives in the 2011 general election , while endorsing President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf 's bid for

2520-428: The national population, further diminishing the TWP's support which had come from the formerly more influential but demographically smaller Americo-Liberian population. Doe's government also realigned Liberia's foreign policy back to a pro-US position, making it harder to gain international recognition as an opposition group with fears over communist expansionism and the rise of Soviet backed client regimes in Africa during

2576-4973: The party follows. As such, switching parties is more common than in other countries. Politics of Liberia [REDACTED] Constitution 1847 Constitution 1986 Constitution Executive President Joseph Boakai Vice President Jeremiah Koung Cabinet Legislature Senate President Pro Tempore House of Representatives Speaker Judiciary Supreme Court Chief Justice : Sie-A-Nyene Yuoh Human rights Elections Recent elections General: 2017 2023 Senate: 2014 2020 Political parties Unity Party Congress for Democratic Change Alternative National Congress Liberty Party Administrative divisions Counties Districts Clans Foreign relations Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister : Sara Beysolow Diplomatic missions of / in Liberia Nationality law Passport Visa requirements Visa policy [REDACTED] Liberia portal Other countries v t e Represented parties [ edit ] Party Abbr. Leader Senate seats House seats Coalition for Democratic Change Congress for Democratic Change CDC Mulbah K. Morlu 9 / 30 25 / 73 National Patriotic Party NPP James Biney People's Democratic Party of Liberia PDLP Union of Liberian Democrats ULD Solomon G. Khan United People's Party UPP MacDonald A. Wento Change Democratic Action CDA Movement for Economic Empowerment MOVEE Unity Party UP Luther Tarpeh 3 / 30 11 / 73 Collaborating Political Parties Alternative National Congress ANC Alexander Cummings 3 / 30 6 / 73 Liberty Party LP Charlyne Brumskine Movement for Democracy and Reconstruction MDR Prince Johnson 2 / 30 4 / 73 People's Unification Party PUP Samuel Kogar 1 / 30 2 / 73 All Liberian Party ALP Benoni Urey 1 / 30 1 / 73 Liberia Restoration Party LRP Gabriel Salee 1 / 30 1 / 73 Liberia National Union LNU Jerome Slojue 0 / 30 1 / 73 Movement for Progressive Change MPC O’neal Passawe 0 / 30 1 / 73 National Democratic Coalition NDC Alaric K. Tokpa 0 / 30 1 / 73 Vision for Liberia Transformation VOLT Jeremiah Z. Whapoe 0 / 30 1 / 73 Unrepresented parties [ edit ] All Liberia Coalition Party Grassroots Development Movement Liberia National Union Liberia Transformation Party Liberian People's Party Rainbow Alliance Democratic Justice Party True Whig Party Victory for Change Union of Liberian Democrats Historical parties [ edit ] Free Democratic Party Freedom Alliance Party of Liberia Labor Party of Liberia Liberia Destiny Party Liberia Education and Development Party Liberia Equal Rights Party Liberia Unification Party Liberian Action Party Movement for Justice in Africa National Democratic Party of Liberia National Party of Liberia National Reformation Parties National Union for Democratic Progress National Vision Party of Liberia New Deal Movement Progressive Alliance of Liberia Progressive Democratic Party Republican Party Reformed United Liberia Party See also [ edit ] Politics of Liberia References [ edit ] v t e Political parties in Liberia [REDACTED] Parties with legislative representation Coalition for Democratic Change CDC NPP LPDP ULD UPP MOVEE Unity Party Alternative National Congress Liberty Party Movement for Democracy and Reconstruction People's Unification Party All Liberian Party Liberia National Union Movement for Progressive Change National Democratic Coalition Vision for Liberia Transformation Liberia Restoration Party Parties with no legislative representation All Liberia Coalition Party Grassroots Development Movement Liberia Transformation Party Liberian People's Party Rainbow Alliance TWP VCP Defunct or renamed parties Coalition for

2632-618: The ruling TWP shifted away from a pro-Western stance to a neutral posture by fostering partnerships with other African states and opening up relationships with the Soviet Union , China and Eastern Bloc nations, pursuing liberal domestic policies and attempting to bring more native Liberians into governing circles. These ideological changes caused consternation among both TWP supporters and politicians in Tolbert's administration. List of political parties in Liberia From Misplaced Pages,

2688-598: The state of Israel . In November 1947, Liberia had been among African governments which voted Yes for the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine , a vote which implied acceptance of the Zionist Movement 's aspiration to create an independent sovereign nation (the State of Israel) as a Jewish-dominant state. Under the leadership of William Tolbert (who sought to stress Liberia's political independence),

2744-410: The twentieth century during Tubman's rule. Although the party favored protectionism in its early years, it later pursued deregulation, free-market and economically liberal policies known as the " porte ouverte " ("open door") under Tubman to attract investment and stimulate growth. In terms of foreign policy, the TWP took a pro-Western and particularly pro-American stance owing to the fact much of

2800-489: Was 15, he participated in several military operations within the country through 1917, being promoted from private to officer. Planning to become a preacher, at age 19 Tubman was named as a Methodist lay preacher. After studying law under various private tutors, he passed the bar examination and became a lawyer in 1917. Tubman was soon appointed as a recorder in the Maryland County Monthly and Probate Court

2856-471: Was elected standard bearer. The RA did not run a candidate in the 2023 presidential election . The RA unsuccessfully ran candidates in various 2023 legislative elections. The True Whig Party initially sought to emulate the policies of the American Whig Party (from which it took its name) and the philosophy of Whiggism . The TWP was also described as promoting conservatism and black conservatism in

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2912-521: Was killed in a military coup on 12 April 1980 by a group of AFL soldiers led by Samuel Doe , who formed the People's Redemption Council (PRC). They had opposed Tolbert's clampdown on the political opposition and what they saw as his tolerance of corruption . Many high-ranking officials of the TWP such as E. Reginald Townsend , Frank E. Tolbert (William's brother) and Cecil Dennis were executed, depleting much of its executive leadership whilst others fled

2968-427: Was poorly attended, as people were afraid of being seen as Coleman sympathizers. That same year the constitution was changed to allow Tubman to stay in office for more than two terms. In 1961 Tubman declared a state of emergency after riots and a strike took place. In July 1965 , Raymond J. Horace and three other individuals involved in the 1955 attempted assassination of Tubman were released from prison. As

3024-547: Was using slave labor . Tubman was reelected to the national legislature in 1934; he resigned in 1937 after being appointed by President Edwin Barclay as associate justice of the Supreme Court of Liberia , where he served until 1943. An official biography speculates that Barclay appointed Tubman to the Liberian Supreme Court to remove him as a competitor for the presidency. In December 1942, Liberia had to elect

3080-401: Was widely regarded as the father of modern Liberia. The TWP fell out of power following the 1980 Liberian coup d'état in which many of its leading members died or fled, ending its dominant position . The TWP ceased to be officially recognized following the coup, although it was never disbanded and continued as a rump party . The party went on to participate in the unsuccessful Coalition for

3136-410: Was widely regarded internationally as being a stable and successful nation in the region whilst other African states were undergoing civil wars and political strife. Following Tubman's death in 1971, the TWP leadership and Presidency was taken over by William Tolbert . Tolbert diverted from the TWP's traditional policies by seeking to stress Liberian sovereignty and political independence, as opposed to

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