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69-603: Together with the lex Salpensana and the lex Irnitana it provides the most complete version of the lex Flavia municipalis , or the Flavian municipal law . and has allowed new insights into the workings of Roman law. The tablets are exhibited in the National Archaeological Museum, Madrid . Since the tablets provide the only surviving copy of large parts of the Flavian municipal law, they have provided new insights into

138-464: A counter-revolutionary and was stripped of all his posts, expelled from the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK), arrested and executed. His photos were removed from official media and his image digitally removed from photos with other North Korean leaders. The term is used in modern scholarship to cover a wide array of official and unofficial sanctions through which the physical remnants and memories of

207-498: A Romanized Iberian settlement, although it cannot be confirmed that this is Irni. The house where the tablets were located appears to have been a bronzesmith workshop, to which they might have been moved for melting, probably around the 3rd to 4th century. The discovery of the tablets altered the landscape of Hispanic municipal laws, confirming the existence of a model law, the "Flavia", from which different municipalities would have drawn their respective copies. Due to its greater length,

276-624: A deceased individual are destroyed. Looking at cases of damnatio memoriae in modern Irish history, Guy Beiner has argued that iconoclastic vandalism only makes martyrs of the "dishonored", thus ensuring that they will be remembered for all time. Nonetheless, Beiner goes on to argue that the purpose of damnatio memoriae —rather than being to erase people from history—was to guarantee only negative memories of those who were so dishonored. Pointing out that damnatio memoriae did not erase people from history but in effect kept their memory alive, Beiner concluded that those who partake in

345-459: A fine. Additionally, works that were initiated would be subject to public disclosure through tablets or posters on the streets. The character of federated cities, which could use their own legal system, is evident in the fact that citizens of Malaca could present their candidates for local aediles without taking into account imperial designations. The tablets also mention aspects related to the imperial cult . This article about Roman law

414-440: A heading. The first line of each chapter protrudes to the left and begins with one or two larger or interwoven letters; beneath them is the chapter number. The inscription is abundant with large-sized letters, among which some, such as I, T, and L, can be challenging to distinguish. Forgotten words were added in smaller letters. Punctuation marks appear as small triangles placed somewhat haphazardly. Traces of white paint remain, which

483-412: A large number of military campaigns which were recorded and illustrated on multiple high-quality stelae , lintels and hieroglyphic steps of temples which he dedicated to his military success (e.g. Temple 44) and his family (e.g. Temple 23). Though he had a son who eventually ascended to the throne after his death, there was a mysterious decade-long interregnum period in which Pa' Chan did not record

552-458: A legal endorsement, on tablet X shows that it is the last tablet. The plates each consist of three columns of text which survives largely intact. It contains 96 articles ( rubricae ), an addendum and a letter from Domitian . The articles are not numbered but marked by Rubrica followed by a short description. Correlating the Lex Irnitana with other finds, it is possible to reconstruct most of

621-438: A party from Paʼ Chan—which included his son and "heir to the throne" of Paʼ Chan ( chʼok paʼchan ajaw ), Sihyaj Ahkteʼ—, possibly indicate that he ruled as a vassal of Itzam Kʼan Ahk, or that he used the celebration as an opportunity to ask for Itzam Kʼan Ahk's support against Yaxun Bʼalam IV, his political rival. This has led to the conclusion that if this man truly ruled Paʼ Chan, any records of his existence were destroyed during

690-511: A portrait of himself and of his military and political advisor Tlacaelel at Chapultepec , a historically and naturally important site which nowadays is within Mexico City . This became a tradition among subsequent Mexica rulers, and portraits of Axayacatl and Ahuizotl , two of Moctezuma's successors, were also made throughout the rest of the century ( Tizoc 's absence may be explained by his sudden death from poisoning). Moctezuma II would create

759-552: A strong interest in Soviet art and design, and amassed a collection of over 250,000 images. His most striking examples of before-and-after alterations were published as The Commissar Vanishes . 19th century Polish writers often omitted mentioning two kings from the list of Polish monarchs, Bezprym and Wenceslaus III of Bohemia , which has resulted in their being omitted from many later works as well. The treatment of Chinese politician Zhao Ziyang following his fall from grace inside

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828-516: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lex Irnitana The lex Irnitana consists of fragments of Roman municipal laws dated to AD 91 which had been inscribed on a collection of six bronze tablets found in 1981 near El Saucejo , Spain . Together with the Lex Salpensana and the Lex Malacitana it provides the most complete version of the lex Flavia municipalis , or

897-461: Is consistent with the granting of Latin Rights to Baetica in 73/74 and the original text of the document must have been composed somewhere in between using fragments of existing provisions in older laws from Augustean and even Republican times. The addendum is written in a smaller script than the rest of the text and is thought to have been added in the second or third century. The document contains

966-629: The Great Soviet Encyclopedia . Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, many communist statues, particularly of Lenin and Stalin, were removed from former Soviet satellite states. Following a 2015 decision, a process of decommunization in Ukraine successfully dismantled all 1,320 statues of Lenin after its independence, as well as renaming roads and structures named under Soviet authority. The graphic designer David King had

1035-616: The Antigonids from inscriptions in their city, in 200 BC when they were besieged by the Antigonid king Philip V of Macedon during the Second Macedonian War . One decree praising Demetrius Poliorcetes (Philip V's great-grandfather) was smashed and thrown down a well. At Delphi , an honorific inscription erected between 337 and 327 BC for Aristotle and his nephew Callisthenes , two philosophers who were closely associated with

1104-592: The Chinese Communist Party is regarded as another modern case of damnatio memoriae . The destruction of all copies of The Victory of Faith in order to erase Ernst Röhm is considered an act of Nazi damnatio memoriae . In the end, two copies survived: one preserved in London and one preserved by the Communist government of East Germany. In December 2013, Jang Song-thaek was abruptly accused of being

1173-494: The Flavian municipal law . and has allowed new insights into the workings of Roman law. The tablets are exhibited in the Archeological Museum of Seville . Since the tablets provide the only surviving copy of large parts of the Flavian municipal law, they have provided new insights into the procedural side of municipal courts. The tablets measure 57.5 by 91.5 cm (22.6 by 36.0 in) and each has three holes at

1242-541: The Flavian dynasty and had strong allies in Hispania. In the year 74, the city of Malaca might have requested the emperor to grant them the Lex Flavia, under the provision of granting Latin rights to all of Hispania. However, this grant of citizenship did not materialize until sometime between the years 81 and 96, during the reign of Domitian , who is mentioned in the oaths of the text. The tablets were discovered in 1851 in

1311-745: The Lex Flavia Malacitana among specialists. For his efforts, he was knighted with the Order of Isabella the Catholic . For years, these tablets were displayed in the Loringiano Museum on the La Concepción estate. However, the Loring family decided to sell their collection of legal bronzes to the state to ensure that this valuable find would not be dispersed after their death. As a result, they became part of

1380-508: The Macedonians , were smashed and thrown in a well after the death of Alexander of Macedon in 323 BC. In ancient Rome, the practice of damnatio memoriae was the condemnation of emperors after their deaths. If the Senate or a later emperor did not like the acts of an emperor, they could have his property seized, his name erased and his statues reworked (normally defaced). Because there

1449-552: The Maya civilization during the Classic period (AD 250–900) as a result of political conflicts between leaders of the local kingdoms. One notable incident occurred in the kingdom of Paʼ Chan (modern-day Yaxchilan , Mexico ) in the middle of the 8th century. In June 742, the k'uhul ajaw (Holy Lord, i.e. king) of Pa' Chan, Itzamnaaj Bahlam III , died after a 60-year-long rule, during which he turned his kingdom into one of great riches after

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1518-489: The Soviet Union , retouching photos to remove individuals such as Leon Trotsky , Nikolay Yezhov , and even Stalin . After Stalin ordered the murder of Grigory Kulik 's wife Kira Kulik-Simonich, all photographic records of her were destroyed; although she was described as very pretty, no photographs or other images of her survive. Following their fall from favour, Lavrentiy Beria and others were removed from articles in

1587-588: The Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia ), where preserved inscriptions concerning a conflict with another city-state, Umma , do not mention the ruler of Umma, but describe him as "the man of Umma", which Zawadzki sees as an example of deliberate degradation of the ruler of Umma to the role of an unworthy person whose name and position in history the rulers of Lagash did not want to record for posterity. Egyptians also practiced this, as seen in relics from pharaoh Akhenaten 's tomb and elsewhere. Akhenaten's sole worship of

1656-634: The Americas. For instance, Moctezuma I (not to be confused with his more famous great-grandson Moctezuma II ), 15th-century huei tlahtoani (Great Speaker, i.e. emperor) of the Excan Tlahtoloyan ( lit. Triple Capital), known by historians as the Mexica or Aztec Empire (also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, whose inhabitants referred to themselves as Culhua-Mexica), ordered the creation of

1725-563: The Hill of Texcotzingo "in a manner such that they would no longer be remembered," a clear example of damnatio memoriae . During the Mexican War of Independence , which started in 1810, one of the earliest revolutionary leaders, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , nowadays remembered as a national Hero , was executed by the Spanish authorities in 1811. After his execution, according to contemporary accounts,

1794-467: The Law of Irni stands out as the primary text, relegating the laws of Salpensa and Málaga to a secondary position. Damnatio memoriae Damnatio memoriae ( Classical Latin pronunciation: [damˈnaːti.oː mɛˈmɔri.ae̯] ) is a modern Latin phrase meaning "condemnation of memory" or "damnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts. Depending on

1863-696: The Municipium Malacitanum was a transit and exchange hub within the Via Herculea , invigorating the city both economically and culturally. It connected the city with other settlements in the interior of Hispania and with other ports in the Mediterranean . Following the civil wars that occurred in the Empire in 68-69 (known as the " Year of the Four Emperors "), Vespasian emerged as the victor. He founded

1932-569: The Pharaohs Hatshepsut and Akhenaten were subject to it. After Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis , one of the Seven Wonders of antiquity , the people of Ephesus banned the mention of his name. His name has since become an eponym for people who commit crimes for the purpose of gaining notoriety. Although the term damnatio memoriae is Latin , the phrase was not used by

2001-470: The ancient Romans, and first appeared in a thesis written in Germany in 1689. Today's best known examples of damnatio memoriae from antiquity concern chiselling stone inscriptions or deliberately omitting certain information from them. According to Stefan Zawadzki , the oldest known examples of such practices come from around 3000–2000 BC. He cites the example of Lagash (an ancient city-state founded by

2070-505: The appointment of municipal patrons; and regulations for the management of public funds. It demonstrates a census-based organization, which distributes obligations and rights based on the economic capacity of the citizens. A portion of the law aligns almost verbatim with the two Hispalense fragments from the Lex Salpensana (related to Utrera) and Lex Irnitana , which address the obligation to reimburse municipal treasury funds as well as

2139-644: The area of Monte de El Ejido, in the city of Málaga by local workers. Their initial intention was to sell these pieces as scrap metal to the Luque family, who were bronze craftsmen. Before they could be melted down, news of the tablets' existence reached the Malaga-based couple Amalia Heredia Livermore and Jorge Loring Oyarzábal. They acquired the tablets with the intention of starting an archaeological collection. Subsequently, Manuel Rodríguez de Berlanga y Rosado, Jorge Loring's brother-in-law, studied, translated, and disseminated

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2208-412: The authorities declared a damnatio memoriae . According to one of Hidalgo's soldiers, Pedro García (1790–1873), "the fierce war against Hidalgo's memory and his ideas" was done through strict censorship. It became illegal to speak about Hidalgo anywhere, it became a great crime that was severely punished. This is the reason why no portrait which resembles him at all is found anywhere in the country, since

2277-473: The case of figures such as emperors or consuls it is unlikely that complete success was possible, as even comprehensive obliteration of the person's existence and actions in records and the like would continue to be historically visible without extensive reworking. The impracticality of such a cover-up could be vast—in the case of Emperor Geta , for example, coins bearing his effigy proved difficult to entirely remove from circulation for several years, even though

2346-571: The city in January 747, also within the interregnum . Notorious incidents of damnatio memoriae occurred during the existence of the Viceroyalty of New Spain , the Spanish colony that emerged after the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521. Various viceroys ordered the destruction of monuments and documents depicting certain episodes of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican history and rebels to Spanish rule over

2415-458: The collection of the National Archaeological Museum . Currently, the city council owns a copy of these tablets, which is displayed in its Plenary Hall. A replica can also be seen in the Customs House of Málaga . The Lex Flavia Malacitana consists of municipal tablets typically placed in a prominent location within the forum, which was the political and religious center of cities. Their purpose

2484-400: The damaged parts show that apparently its destruction was executed with the dropping of a boulder, and that deep holes were drilled "perhaps in order to pry the stone apart or blow it up." In another notorious instance, Spanish bishop Juan de Zumárraga ordered the destruction of a portrait depicting Nezahualcoyotl , king of Texcoco , on July 7, 1539, along with various other sculptures at

2553-455: The destruction of a monument should be considered agents of memory. Author Charles Hedrick proposes that a distinction be made between damnatio memoriae (the condemnation of a deceased person) and abolitio memoriae (the actual erasure of another from historical texts). In case of removal of Soviet monuments in Eastern Europe , the primary reason was that they were established as

2622-423: The entire text of the laws of Salpensa and Malaca, also fitting within it the known fragments from Basilipo and Italica . Due to its greater length, the Law of Irni appears as the main known text of Roman law in the provinces. The Irnitano municipality was unknown prior to the discovery of these tablets, with no reference in epigraphy or literary sources. Excavations carried out in the area of their finding revealed

2691-460: The existence of any king. Itzamnaaj Bahlam's son, Yaxun Bʼalam IV , also known as Bird Jaguar IV, ascended to the throne in April 752, nearly ten years after his father's death. This interregnum period may be explained by a text from the nearby northern kingdom of Yokib (modern-day Piedras Negras , Guatemala ). Panel 3 of this city, largely regarded as one of the most beautiful pieces of Mayan art ,

2760-469: The extent, it can be a case of historical negationism . There are and have been many routes to damnatio memoriae , including the destruction of depictions, the removal of names from inscriptions and documents, and even large-scale rewritings of history. The term can be applied to other instances of official scrubbing. The practice has been seen as early as the Egyptian New Kingdom period, where

2829-418: The funding of cults, priesthoods, rituals, calendar and games, which were considered a religious matter. The text of the law was standard for all cities that held the rank of a municipality; only the name was changed when it was inscribed on bronze tablets for public display. It lays out the rules by which municipal life was to be governed. Among them are those that refer to the responsibilities of authorities,

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2898-472: The god Aten , instead of the traditional pantheon , was considered heretical. During his reign, Akhenaten endeavoured to have all references to the god Amun chipped away and removed. After his reign, temples to Aten were dismantled and the stones reused to create other temples. Images of Akhenaten had their faces chipped away, and images and references to Amun reappeared. The people blamed their misfortunes on Akhenaten's shift of worship to Atenism , away from

2967-411: The gods they served before him. Other Egyptian victims of this practice include the pharaohs that immediately succeeded Akhenaten, including Smenkhkare , Neferneferuaten , and Ay . The campaign of damnatio memoriae against Akhenaten and his successors was initiated by Ay's successor, Horemheb , who decided to erase from history all pharaohs associated with the unpopular Amarna Period ; this process

3036-450: The historical record, not even in his supposed homeland. Moreoever, his respectful presence at a celebration in Yokib, Paʼ Chan's centuries-old and bitter rival (which had, in fact, scored a victory in battle against Itzamnaaj Bahlam III in 726), as well as the depiction of Itzam Kʼan Ahk apparently addressing a speech (now hardly readable, but probably involving an event of Paʼ Chan's past) toward

3105-427: The last portrait of this kind in 1519 (which Hajovsky (2015 , p. 118) believes might be "the last Aztec monument"), at the eve of the Spanish conquest. Antonio de León y Gama , a distinguished Mexican intellectual, wrote in the late 18th century that these portraits were well preserved up until that century. León y Gama claimed that the only portrait he got to see himself was Moctezuma II's, before its destruction

3174-420: The memory of the sanctioned person. The impossibility of actually erasing memory of an emperor have led scholars to conclude that this was not actually the goal of damnatio . Instead, they understand damnatio : not so much as an attempt to obliterate memory entirely as to transform honorific commemoration into a form of visible denigration. That is: the power of an act of damnatio relies, at least in part, on

3243-433: The mere mention of his name was punishable by death. Difficulties in implementation also arose if there was not full and enduring agreement with the punishment, such as when the Senate's condemnation of Nero was implemented—leading to attacks on many of his statues —but subsequently evaded with the enormous funeral he was given by Vitellius . Similarly, it was often difficult to prevent later historians from "resurrecting"

3312-537: The municipal regulations of the Hispano-Roman city of Irni and is signed by Emperor Domitian in Circei ( Italy ) in the year 91. The text deals with the competencies of duumviri , aediles and quaestores , regulates the decurional order , manumission and the appointment of guardians, the relations between patronus and cliens , the acquisition of Roman civil rights by magistrates and public affairs, including

3381-578: The obligation to report to the decurions for transactions made with public funds. Similarly to the Salpensa law, interpolations of the original text, the Lex Flavia Municipal, are common. The urban character of the Roman Empire is evident in its provisions. For instance, the stipulation that owners of buildings destroyed, whether with sufficient reason or not, should rebuild them within a year or face

3450-404: The order of intervention in assemblies, the holding of elections, the appointment of judges, the remuneration of municipal workers, the expenses that could be incurred from the public treasury, Roman citizenship, the appointment of guardians, and the continued prohibition of mixed marriages between Romans and indigenous people. However, it provides a dispensation for those marriages celebrated before

3519-442: The original numbering except for twelve sections at the end of tablet V . The letter which is included at the end provides two dates for the text: Litterae datae IIII idus Apriles Circeis recitatae V idus Domitianas , which dates the letter to the 10th of April and its (public) reading to the 11th of the month Domitian (October) both in the year that Manius Acilius Glabrio and Marcus Ulpius Traianus were consuls (AD 91) and

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3588-410: The pagan history, has been compared to damnatio memoriae as well. In her book Medici Women - Portraits of Power, Love and Betrayal , Gabrielle Langdon also presents compelling evidence concerning a probable damnatio memoriae issued against Isabella de' Medici , a prominent female figure of the 16th century Renaissance Medici court. Several apparent damnatio mamoriae incidents occurred within

3657-497: The procedural side of municipal courts. In December 2016 a petition to Congreso de los Diputados was offered to give it back to the Museo de Málaga . The Ministerio de Cultura studied the case, and on 12 March 2018 Spanish Government denied it. The Romanization of Málaga, as in most of the southern Hispania Ulterior , was peaceful and conducted through agreements, foedus aequum , of mutual friendship and equality. During this era,

3726-405: The prohibition lasted nearly ten years. Nobody felt safe speaking inside their homes. The Spanish efforts to erase his memory, however, were in vain. The War of Independence continued, and the leaders who continued to revolution after Hidalgo's death made great efforts to commemorate his legacy. José María Morelos , for example, declared in 1813 that September 16, the anniversary of the beginning of

3795-439: The promulgation of the law. Chapters 52 to 55 of the law contain parts of the regulations governing the annual local elections that allowed for the appointment of the city's magistrates. Their strong similarities to modern elections make these passages particularly intriguing, where instructions are also provided regarding candidate requirements and the mechanics to follow on election day. The Law of Irni practically reproduces

3864-462: The records of the king (or kings) of the interregnum . It is possible Yopaat Bahlam and his son lived the rest of their lives in exile at Yokib, and that the "heir to the throne" never rose to power. Yopaat Bahlam may have been buried in Burial 13 of the city, judging from a text carved on four Spondylus limbatus shells found within it which bears his name and mentions that he had previously visited

3933-473: The reign of Yaxun Bʼalam IV, who notoriously led a massive propaganda campaign throughout his rule to claim legitimacy over the throne, which involved the rewriting of his kingdom's dynastic history and restoration of several historical records of previous kings. The immense texts writing Yaxun Bʼalam's own version of his kingdom's dynastic history may have been carved over existing records which would have been intentionally erased with plaster , possibly destroying

4002-467: The tablet weighs 90 kg. The inscription appears to have been engraved prior to the frame's assembly, as the frame would have hindered the burin's movement during the engraving process. The tablet contains a portion of the version of the Lex Latii given by Domician to the new Flavian Municipality of Malaca. It retains chapters 51 through 66. Each chapter is preceded by its title, indented, and introduced by

4071-495: The top and bottom to fix them to the facade of an official building at a height where it could easily be read, as expressly required by article 95. In total they must have stretched some 9 m (30 ft) like an unrolled volumen . The letters measure 4–6 mm (0.16–0.24 in) in height and the text is framed by a simple molding. The six surviving tablets are engraved III , V , VII , VIII , IX and X . Fragments of tablet II have later been discovered. A sanctio ,

4140-561: The viewer of a monument being able to supplement the gaps in an inscription with their own knowledge of what those gaps had once contained, and the reasons why the text had been removed These emperors are known to have been erased from monuments: In the Middle Ages, heresiarchs could have their memory condemned. The Council of Constance decreed the damnatio memoriae of John Wycliffe . The practice of replacing pagan beliefs and motifs with Christian, and purposefully not recording

4209-423: The war, would be celebrated every year "remembering always the merit of the great Hero Don Miguel Hidalgo and his partner Don Ignacio Allende ." While complete damnatio memoriae has not been attempted in modern times—naming or writing about a person fallen from favour has never been made subject to formal punishment—less total instances of damnatio memoriae in modern times include numerous examples from

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4278-418: Was an economic incentive to seize property and rework statues, historians and archaeologists have had difficulty determining when official damnatio memoriae actually took place, although it seems to have been quite rare. Compounding this difficulty is the fact that a completely successful damnatio memoriae results—by definition—in the full and total erasure of the subject from the historical record. In

4347-412: Was carved approximately in 782 and illustrates an episode of the reign of Itzam Kʼan Ahk II (also known as Pawaaj Kʼan Ahk II), in which he celebrated his first kʼatun (period of 7200 days) as king, on July 27, 749. Panel 3 claims that the celebration "was witnessed by Sak Jukub Yopaat Bahlam, Holy Lord of Paʼ Chan." Also known as Yopaat Bahlam II, this mysterious ruler does not appear anywhere else in

4416-490: Was commonly used to highlight letters on bronze inscriptions. Domiciano's name was erased after his death due to the damnatio memoriae ordered by the Senate upon the rise of Nerva . The Lex Flavia Malacitana, in its current state, preserves only nineteen chapters related to the system and processes of accessing magistracies. Contained within it are the procedures for the election and voting of magistrates by popular assemblies;

4485-498: Was continued by Horemheb's successors. Tutankhamun was also erased from history in this way, even though he had restored Egypt to the Amun god, because he was one the kings who succeeded Akhenaten; he may also have been Akhenaten's son. One case of damnatio memoriae is known for the ancient Hittite empire . Mursili III was a king of the Hittites for about seven years in 1282–1275 BC who

4554-482: Was known in Ancient Greece. The Athenians frequently destroyed inscriptions which referred to individuals or events that they no longer wished to commemorate. After Timotheus was convicted of treason and removed from his post as general in 373 BC, all references to him as a general were deleted from the previous year's naval catalogue. The most complete example is their systematic removal of all references to

4623-428: Was ordered by the authorities in 1753 or 1754. He mentioned that Axayacatl's portrait still existed earlier in that century before it was "broken up and removed." Indeed, the remains of Moctezuma's portrait, approximately 2 meters (over 6 feet) high, reveal that its damage was not accidental or natural. It was carved on pink-to-gray andesite , which is "slightly harder than marble ," according to Hajovsky. The markings in

4692-459: Was then overthrown by his uncle Hattusili III , who assumed the throne. There is a well known relief of Mursili's father Muwatalli II near the village of Sirkeli Höyük in Turkey , as well as a second, very similar relief that is believed to be that of his son Mursili. It was largely destroyed in antiquity, most likely by his spiteful uncle. The relief of the father was left untouched. The practice

4761-442: Was to ensure that all citizens were familiar with the municipality's regulations. Originally composed of five bronze tablets, only one remains. This preserved tablet measures approximately 89 cm in height and 122 cm in width, with a thickness varying from 0.9 cm on the left to 0.5 cm on the right. Its top and bottom edges are irregular, while the sides are smooth. Including its frame, the total dimensions extend to 94 cm by 130 cm, and

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