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63-825: Greenbrier College was a women's college in Lewisburg, West Virginia in the United States from 1812 to 1972. It started as Lewisburg Academy and when the school closed during the American Civil War , it reopened in 1875 it split into two schools: the Greenbrier College for Women and the Greenbrier Military School . The Greenbrier College also went by the Lewisburg Female Institute and Lewisburg Female Seminary . Greenbrier College started as

126-466: A Nonjuror . He provided financial support and an introduction to her future publisher; Astell later dedicated a collection of poetry to him. During this time, it is believed that Astell may have spent some time at a convent in France, where she was exposed to ideas about women's education and independence. Upon her return to England, Astell became a valued member of the group of intellectual women known as

189-530: A Method is offered for the Improvement of their Minds". In 1700, Astell published Some Reflections upon Marriage . She critiques the philosophical underpinnings of the institution of marriage in 1700s England, warning women of the dangers of a hasty or ill-considered choice. The Duchess of Mazarin is used as an example of "the dangers of an ill Education and unequal Marriage". Astell argues that education will help women to make better matrimonial choices and meet

252-512: A Vertuous Mind, and in all other respects let there be as much equality as may be." Astell expanded on this theme in response to critics in the third edition of Some Reflections upon Marriage . She withdrew from public life in 1709 to become head of a charity school for girls in Chelsea, funded by two wealthy philanthropists, Lady Catherine Jones and Lady Elizabeth Hastings . Backed by the Society for

315-542: A charitable school for girls. Astell considered herself a self-reliant, modern woman, one who was on a definite mission to rescue her sex from the oppression of men. Despite Astell's contribution to the feminist cause, there is a notable tension in the broader body of scholarship when it comes to categorising her as the unequivocal "first English feminist." This discrepancy arises due to Astell's conflicting intellectual commitments. In addition to her belief in women's inherent intellectual potential and her thorough exploration of

378-427: A charm school) focuses on social graces such as deportment, etiquette, and entertaining; academics if offered are secondary. The term finishing school has sometimes been used or misused to describe certain women's colleges. Some of these colleges may have started as finishing schools but transformed themselves into rigorous liberal arts academic institutions, as for instance the now defunct Finch College . Likewise

441-427: A circle of literary and influential women, including Lady Mary Chudleigh , Elizabeth Thomas , Judith Drake , Elizabeth Elstob , and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu . These helped develop and publish her work, as did William Sancroft , previously Archbishop of Canterbury. Believing himself bound by his previous oath to James II, he refused to swear allegiance to William III after the 1688 Glorious Revolution and became

504-571: A collection of 47 of Astell's books and pamphlets, many of which have her annotations, were identified in the Old Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge by Catherine Sutherland, the Deputy Librarian. These marginalia reveal, for the first time, the degree to which she was involved with the natural philosophy literature and discourse of her time. Other holdings are at the British Library and

567-550: A comprehensive education that would enable women to participate in society, engage in intellectual discourse, and contribute to the public sphere. Astell thought that a proper education was crucial for women to attain social and intellectual independence, allowing them to break free from the constraints imposed by patriarchal society. Astell believed that women should be educated in a spiritual environment, away from society with only other females. She felt that women should receive an education free of male influence because of how corrupt

630-571: A conservative royalist Anglican . Mary's maternal grandfather was also a coal merchant and a member of the Hostmen guild. Due to her family's success within the coal business her family had grown to achieve relative affluence. At the time of Mary's birth, her family was not part of the gentry . Within the year of Mary's birth her family would be elevated in status after an ancestor's augmentation. Mary received no formal education, although she did receive an informal education from her uncle Ralph Astell; he

693-481: A few coeducational colleges (such as Oberlin College founded in 1833, Lawrence University in 1847, Antioch College in 1853, and Bates College in 1855), most colleges and universities of high standing at that time were exclusively for men. Critics of the girls’ seminaries were roughly divided into two groups. The reform group, including Emma Willard , felt seminaries required reform through “strengthening teaching of

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756-437: A given plan.” Another notable figure was Mary Lyon (1797-1849), founder of Mount Holyoke College , whose contemporaries included Sarah Pierce ( Litchfield Female Academy , 1792); Catharine Beecher ( Hartford Female Seminary , 1823); Zilpah P. Grant Banister ( Ipswich Female Seminary , 1828); George Washington Doane (St. Mary's Hall, 1837 now called Doane Academy ). Prior to founding Mount Holyoke, Lyon contributed to

819-599: A life of the mind. The first college to partially realise Astell's plan was Whitelands College , a women's teacher training college opened in 1841 by the Church of England 's National Society and since 2004 part of the University of Roehampton . Whitelands was followed by two colleges in London, Queen's College in 1848 and Bedford College in 1849. Queen's College developed into a girls' public school and Bedford College became part of

882-615: A new type of institution for women to assist in providing women with both religious and secular education. She suggests extending women's career options beyond mother and nun. She felt uneducated women were concerned with beauty and vanity, and this lack of education was the root of their inferiority to men, not that they were naturally inferior. Astell wanted all women to have the same opportunity as men to spend eternity in heaven with God, and she believed that for this they needed to be educated and to understand their experiences. The 'nunnery' style education she proposed would enable women to live in

945-721: A protected environment, without the influences of the external patriarchal society. Her proposal was never adopted because critics said it seemed "too Catholic" for the English. Later her ideas about women were satirised in The Tatler by the writer Jonathan Swift . While the writer Daniel Defoe admired the first part of Astell's proposal, he believed that her recommendations were "impracticable." Patricia Springborg notes that Defoe's own recommendation for an academy for women as detailed in his An Essay Upon Projects did not significantly differ from Astell's original proposal. Despite this, she

1008-453: A room with her coffin, thinking only of God; she was buried in the churchyard of Chelsea Church in London. Astell is remembered for her ability to debate with both men and women, and for her groundbreaking methods of negotiating the position of women in society by engaging in philosophical debate ( Descartes was a particular influence) rather than basing her arguments in historical evidence as had been attempted. Descartes' theory of dualism,

1071-581: A separate mind and body, allowed Astell to promote the idea that women, as well as men, had the ability to reason, and subsequently, they should not be treated so poorly: "If all Men are born Free, why are all Women born Slaves?" Mary Astell's works were published anonymously. Her two best-known books, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, for the Advancement of Their True and Greatest Interest (1694) and A Serious Proposal, Part II (1697), outline her plan to establish

1134-637: A sign of our [women's] success." Brescia University College is Canada 's only extant university-level women's educational institution. Brescia is affiliated with and located on the campus of the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario . Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Nova Scotia was originally founded as a women's college in 1875, but became co-educational in 1967. Most major universities in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are composed of two branches:

1197-400: A testament to her enduring legacy as a feminist philosopher and advocate for women's rights. Astell had a significant personal library which was an unusual example of a late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century book collection owned by a woman who was herself a published author. Her books can be recognised by the inscription of her name on the title page and her many annotations. In 2021

1260-680: A woman she had little or no business in the world of commerce, politics, or law. She was born, she died; she owned a small house for some years; she kept a bank account; she helped to open a charity school in Chelsea: these facts the public listings can supply." Only four of her letters were saved and these because they had been written to important men of the period. Researching the biography, Perry uncovered more letters and manuscript fragments, but she notes that if Astell had not written to wealthy aristocrats who could afford to pass down entire estates, very little of her life would have survived. Mary Astell

1323-437: A women-only branch and a similar male-only branch. This includes the following universities: The following are female-only institutions: Mary Astell advocated the idea that women were just as rational as men, and just as deserving of education. First published in 1694, her Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest presents a plan for an all-female college where women could pursue

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1386-679: Is determinedly anti-Aristotelian." Although Astell embraced the Aristotelian friendship of moral virtue, Kendrick claims that Astell treated "virtuous friends as those who love one another for who they essentially are" and not just for reciprocity's sake. Contrary to Aristotle, Astell contends that authentic virtuous friendship arose from the Divine Nature of God, thus becoming spiritual friendship. Furthermore, Astell, unlike Aristotle, saw this love in friendship extending toward one's enemies because Divine Love embraces all of mankind. Astell believed in

1449-566: Is no difference between the Christian and Islamic belief in God. In sections 2 and 3 of The Christian Religion , Astell focused on "Duty to God" and "Duty to Our Neighbour," Astell presents all humans 'are brethren' and sinful pride leads us to treat others as 'creatures of a different species.' This thought rests alongside her beliefs in the essential nature of hierarchical distinctions, which she explains by stating that God's works 'do not necessarily possess

1512-433: Is not founded on liberal political objectives but rather on intellectual premises. This explains why, at the time, she did not demand complete political equality for women. Having been exposed in her youth to civil unrest and riots in the streets of Newcastle is probably what helped develop her interest in politics. She had idealised King Charles I and viewed his successors, William and Mary , as "illegitimate" rulers to

1575-400: Is not known if she had any close friends or if she was involved in any romantic relationships. It is unclear if she was involved in any political or social causes during this time, although her later writings suggest an interest in issues related to women's education and equality. After the death of her mother and aunt in 1688, Astell moved to Chelsea, London , where she became acquainted with

1638-585: The Association of American Colleges and Universities , NAICU and others, the Coalition makes the case for women's education and women's high schools and colleges to prospective students, families, policy and opinion makers, the media, employers and the general public. Mary Astell Letters Concerning the Love of God (1695) Some Reflections upon Marriage (1700) Mary Astell (12 November 1666 – 11 May 1731)

1701-506: The Bluestockings . The exact date of her entry into the circle is not known, but it is believed to have been in the early 1690s. The bluestockings gathered to discuss literature, science, and philosophy, and their discussions often centred on issues related to women's education and equality. Astell's participation in these conversations influenced her later work. She was one of the first English women, following Bathsua Makin , to advocate

1764-590: The John A. North House when they served as presidents. Carnegie Hall was built as the music hall and department for the women's college with support from Andrew Carnegie . Many notable people, including Helen F. Holt , taught at the school. The school shut down in 1972 and sold it to the West Virginia State Department of Mental Health and became the Greenbrier Center. The North House museum was given to

1827-479: The Port-Royal Logic as a source of contemporary influence, though still relied upon classical rhetorical theories as she presented her own original ideas. In her presentation, she offered that rhetoric, as an art, does not require a male education to be master, and listed the means of which a woman could acquire the necessary skills from natural logic, which established Astell as a capable female rhetorician. In

1890-483: The United States were a product of the increasingly popular private girls' secondary schools of the early- to mid-19th century, called "academies" or "seminaries." According to Irene Harwarth, et al., "women's colleges were founded during the mid- and late-19th century in response to a need for advanced education for women at a time when they were not admitted to most institutions of higher education." While there were

1953-610: The University of London before merging with another women's college. The first of the Cambridge women's colleges, Girton , which opened in 1869 initially in Hitchin , claims to be the first residential college in Britain to offer degree level education to women. Somerville and Lady Margaret Hall in Oxford opened in 1879. Existing women's colleges: Former women's colleges: Women's colleges in

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2016-587: The Greenbrier Historical Society forming the Greenbrier Historical Society. Carnegie Hall, Inc. was formed in 1983 to save the building from destruction and continues to serve the community. The main school buildings eventually became the New River Community and Technical College . Women%27s college A women's college offers an academic curriculum exclusively or primarily, while a girls' or women's finishing school (sometimes called

2079-728: The Lewisburg Academy. Lewisburg Academy was established by Reverend John McElhenney in 1812 as the first school in Greenbrier County, West Virginia . The school closed during the American Civil War. When the school, reopened in 1875 it split into two schools: the Greenbrier College for Women and the Greenbrier Military School . Much of the school burned down in 1901. It was rebuilt in 1902. The school again burned in 1921. Telford, Armstrong, Thompson, and Murray all lived in

2142-567: The Propagation of Christian Knowledge , Astell designed the school's curriculum and it is thought to be the first school in England with an all-women Board of Governors. When she was 60 years old, Astell went to live with Lady Catherine Jones, with whom she resided until her death in 1731. Astell died in London a few months after a mastectomy to remove a cancerous right breast. In her last days, she refused to see any of her acquaintances and stayed in

2205-559: The challenges of the married state: "She has need of a strong Reason, of a truly Christian and well-temper'd Spirit, of all the Assistance the best Education can give her, and ought to have some good assurance of her own Firmness and Vertue, who ventures on such a Trial". Astell warns that disparity in intelligence, character, and fortune may lead to misery, and recommends that marriage be based on lasting friendship rather than short-lived attraction. A woman should look for "a good Understanding,

2268-455: The core academic subjects.” Others felt seminaries were insufficient, suggesting “a more durable institution--a women’s college--be founded, among them, Catharine E. Beecher . In her True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women (1851), Beecher points out how “seminaries could not offer sufficient, permanent endowments, buildings, and libraries; a corporation whose duty it is to perpetuate the institution on

2331-462: The development of both Hartford Female Seminary and Ipswich Female Seminary. She was also involved in the creation of Wheaton Female Seminary (now Wheaton College, Massachusetts ) in 1834. The Women's College Coalition is an association of women's colleges and universities (with some observers/participants from the single-sex secondary/ high schools ) that are either two- and four-year, both public and private, religiously-affiliated and secular. It

2394-419: The early 1690s Astell entered into correspondence with John Norris of Bemerton , after reading Norris's Practical Discourses, upon several Divine subjects . The letters illuminate Astell's thoughts on God and theology. Norris thought the letters worthy of publication and had them published with Astell's consent as Letters Concerning the Love of God (1695). Her name did not appear in the book, but her identity

2457-497: The family finances invested in her brother's higher education, Mary and her mother moved to live with Mary's aunt. After moving in with her aunt, little is known about Mary Astell's life until she was in her early twenties. It is possible that she continued to receive informal education from her uncle, but there is no concrete evidence. It is possible that Mary's lack of a dowry and her family's financial situation may have limited her opportunities for further education or advancement. It

2520-513: The finishing school characterization persisted, and may have contributed to declining enrollment, financial straits, and the school's near closure in 2015 . The continuing relevance of women's colleges has been questioned. While during the 1960s there were 240 women's colleges in the U.S., only about 40 remain as of 2015. In the words of a teacher at Radcliffe (a women's college that merged with Harvard ): "[i]f women’s colleges become unnecessary, if women’s colleges become irrelevant, then that’s

2583-416: The fundamental intellectual equality between men and women. Her philosophical writings are thought to have influenced subsequent generations of educated women, including the literary group known as the Bluestockings . Astell, who never married, formed the majority of her close personal relationships with women. During the early 1700s, she withdrew from public life and dedicated herself to planning and managing

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2646-402: The help of male authority, whom she felt kept women in a place of subjugation. Astell's Some Reflections upon Marriage , goes into the experiences of women in early modern marriages, with a specific focus on the separation of Hortense Mancini from her abusive husband. Astell asserts that marriage’s current state is far from its original sanctity as a holy institution established by God due to

2709-407: The idea that women were just as rational as men, and just as deserving of education. First published anonymously and signed "By a Lover of her Sex" in 1694, her A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest presents a plan for an all-female college where women could pursue a life of the mind. In 1697 she published part 2 to her A Serious Proposal" Wherein

2772-445: The importance of educating women and argued for their intellectual development, primarily in "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies". She challenged prevailing notions that women were intellectually inferior to men, pointing to an innate equality between the minds of men and women. Astell criticized the limited educational opportunities available to women in her time, which often focused on domestic skills and accomplishments. She advocated for

2835-426: The marriage negotiations broke down, leaving Astell disappointed. Astell makes jabs at John Locke critiquing An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and The Reasonableness of Christianity , along with other works she regards as deist or Socinian . She attacks his scepticism of the scriptural truth and divinity of Jesus Christ, objecting strongly that Christ is merely an 'extraordinary person,' and that there

2898-471: The moral deficiencies of human beings, specifically men. She warns women against blindly submitting to their husbands' will and advocates for the education of women to fortify their virtue and reason. Scholars have suggested that Astell's Reflections contain a veiled political subtext challenging the Whig theorists of her time to extend the same authority granted to husbands in the domestic sphere to sovereigns in

2961-400: The most drastic downward spiral in its history. Additionally, the landscape of education dramatically changed as many previously all-male high schools (both private/independent and public) along with the colleges, many of which were either forced by official actions or declining attendance figures to become coeducational, thereby offering women many more educational options. At the same time with

3024-505: The past several years, the Women's College Coalition engaged in research about the benefits of a women's high school and/or college education in the 21st century. Drawing upon the findings of research conducted by the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) and Hardwick-Day on levels of satisfaction among students and alumnae at women's colleges and coeducational institutions, as well as

3087-546: The perils of oppressive husbands, Mary Astell was a staunch High Tory , a conservative pamphleteer, and an advocate for the doctrine of passive obedience. Even during their initial publication, her strongest political views may have seemed outdated and out of touch with the prevailing beliefs of the time. Furthermore, her emphasis on the importance of religion to female friendship and feminist thought has rankled contemporary critics of her work. Few records of Mary Astell's life have survived. As biographer Ruth Perry explains: "as

3150-478: The punishment for it. Even if the crown had dictatorial authority, Astell argued that political subjects were never entitled to oppose the monarch. Locke criticised Astell's views on natural law and the right of resistance in his First Treatise , published in 1690. Astell maintains that while Locke considers self-preservation to be a fundamental right, it only involves preserving the immortal soul. Therefore, humans are only allowed to act in ways that will ensure

3213-467: The safety of their souls from judgment, in accordance with natural law. Astell's ideas about women in education laid the foundation for later feminist movements, as they challenged social norms and paved the way for improved educational opportunities for women. Her work continues to inspire contemporary debates on gender equality and the importance of education in women's empowerment. Mary Astell's groundbreaking reflections on women's education continue to be

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3276-542: The same degree of perfection.' Some have questioned how Astell could be both a feminist and a High-Church Tory given her disapproval of Locke's political views and her opposition to Whig theories of liberty, resistance and tolerance. At first glance, her support for a political party that fights freedom of conscience and other perceived dangers to the Anglican church seems in opposition with her advocacy for women's freedom of judgment. Scholars have seen that Astell's feminism

3339-410: The secondary school Miss Porter's School was founded as Miss Porter's Finishing School for Young Ladies in 1843; now it emphasizes an academic curriculum. A women's college that had never described itself as a finishing school can acquire the misnomer. Throughout the 114-year history of the women's college Sweet Briar , students and alumnae have objected to calling it a finishing school. Nonetheless

3402-483: The similar changes forced on women's institutions, both private and public secondary schools along with the colleges/universities, forced a number of the larger number of girls schools to also coeducate. By the late 1970s, women's enrollment in college exceeded the men's and, today, women make up the majority of undergraduates (57% nationally) on college/university campuses. Women earn better college grades than men do, and are more likely than men to complete college. During

3465-437: The state. By questioning the acceptance of submission and obedience to authority in the home, but not in the state, Astell presents an ironic challenge to Whig opponents. As a result, Astell concluded that Whig theorists should practise passive obedience to their political leaders. George Ballard , Astell's eighteenth-century biographer, stated that although she never married, she had been proposed to by an eminent clergyman but

3528-486: The throne of England. Her Tory politics and English patriotism led her to reflect that 'it is better some innocents should suffer than the majesty of government, and herein the divine authority should be violated." According to Astell's Anglican political theology, all subjects are required to adhere to the notion of passive obedience , which mandates that they must willingly surrender to political authority.   When they are unable to do so openly, they must submit to

3591-489: The world under male dominance was. To accomplish these aims, her serious proposal entailed the establishment of a monastery-like institution where young women could receive an education and older women could retire. Astell held that this education should be composed of subjects traditionally dominated by men, such as philosophy and theology, along with a strong religious component. Astell viewed herself as self-reliant and took pride advancing her mission to rescue her sex without

3654-520: Was a Cambridge graduate and a former clergyman whose alcoholism had prompted his suspension from the Church of England . Though suspended from the Church, he was affiliated with the Cambridge-based philosophical school that based its teachings around philosophers such as Aristotle , Plato , and Pythagoras . Her father died when she was 12 years old, leaving her without a dowry. With the remainder of

3717-417: Was an English protofeminist writer, philosopher, and rhetorician who advocated for equal educational opportunities for women . Astell is primarily remembered as one of England's inaugural advocates for women's rights and some commentators consider her to have been "the first English feminist." Astell's works, particularly A Serious Proposal to the Ladies and Some Reflections Upon Marriage , argue for

3780-625: Was born in Newcastle upon Tyne on 12 November 1666, to Peter and Mary (Errington) Astell. Her parents had two other children, William, who died in infancy, and Peter, her younger brother. She was baptised in St John's Church in Newcastle . Her family was upper-middle class and lived in Newcastle throughout her early childhood. Her father was a coal merchant, a clerk within the Hostmen of Newcastle upon Tyne and

3843-458: Was founded in 1972, at a time in which the " Civil Rights Movement ", the " Women's Rights Movement ", and Title IX , as well as demographic and technological changes in the 1960s brought about rapid and complex social and economic change in the United States . These societal changes put increasing pressure of perceived "unpopularity" and "old fashioned" perceptions and opinions placing the concept of " single-sex education " for both women and men on

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3906-457: Was soon discovered and her rhetorical style was much lauded by contemporaries. One of Astell's notable contributions to 18th-century ideas of female friendship rests on the political exigencies of forming alliances. Jacqueline Broad views Astell's bond of friendship as more Aristotelian where alliances are formed for the sake of virtuous reciprocity. However, Nancy Kendrick does not accept Broad's viewpoint. She feels Astell's "theory of friendship

3969-445: Was still an intellectual force in London's educated classes. A few years later, Astell published the second part of A Serious Proposal , detailing her own vision of women's education for courtly ladies. She broke away from the contemporary rhetorical style of the period where orators spoke before an audience for learning, and instead offered a conversational style of teaching "neighbours" the proper way of behaviour. She referred only to

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