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61-554: Karr was born in Paris to German pianist and composer Henri Karr (1784–1842), and after being educated at the Collège Bourbon , became a teacher there. Some of his novels, including his first, Sous les Tilleuls (1832), were autobiographical romances. A second novel, Une heure trop tard , followed next year, and was succeeded by many other popular works. His Vendredi soir (1835) and Le Chemin le plus court (1836) continued

122-552: A biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgot's economic theories. Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences , holding the post until the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of the Académie française . In 1785, Condorcet published one of his most important works, Essay on

183-493: A candidate preferred by a majority of voters. In 1781, Condorcet anonymously published a pamphlet entitled Reflections on Negro Slavery ( Réflexions sur l'esclavage des nègres ), in which he denounced slavery . In 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for the differential and integral calculus , giving a new treatment of infinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published. In 1789, he published Vie de Voltaire (1789) , which agreed with Voltaire in his opposition to

244-485: A conservative notion of denying women education and equal rights on account of keeping them tied to the domestic sphere where [according to him] they belonged, Condorcet refused to acquit the inequality between men and women to natural disposition. Instead, he believed that the provision of education to women on par with the education provided to men was the pathway to establishing gender equality. He stated: "I believe that all other differences between men and women are simply

305-506: A generic Condorcet method , designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the alternative method of aggregating preferences put forth by Jean-Charles de Borda (based on summed rankings of alternatives ). Condorcet was one of the first to systematically apply mathematics in the social sciences . He also considered the instant-runoff voting elimination method, as early as 1788, though only to condemn it, for its ability to eliminate

366-606: A key contribution to the French Enlightenment , particularly his work on the Idea of Progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding. None of Condorcet's writings refer to a belief in a religion or a god who intervenes in human affairs. Condorcet instead frequently had written of his faith in humanity itself and its ability to progress with

427-673: A lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate. Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit (1795) was perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea of progress ever written. It made the Idea of Progress a central concern of Enlightenment thought. He argued that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion. He argued for three general propositions: that

488-653: A member of the French Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks) . He wrote a set of rules for the Society of the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning and goals behind the organization along with describing the injustice of slavery and put in a statement calling for the abolition of the slave trade as the first step to true abolition. Condorcet was also

549-579: A revised edition between 1847 and 1849. Condorcet's work was mainly focused on a quest for a more egalitarian society. This path led him to think and write about gender equality in the Revolutionary context. In 1790, he published " Sur l'admission des femmes au droit de cité " ("On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship") in which he strongly advocated for women's suffrage in the new Republic as well as

610-446: A strong proponent of women's civil rights. He claimed that women were equal to men in nearly every aspect and asked why then should they be debarred from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the fact that women were limited by their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than average men, such as Queen Elizabeth and Maria-Theresa . Furthermore, as he argues for

671-771: A young age, he was taken care of by his devoutly religious mother who dressed him as a girl till age eight. He was educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the Collège de Navarre in Paris, where he quickly showed his intellectual ability and gained his first public distinctions in mathematics . When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise of Jean le Rond d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut ; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert. From 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics, entitled Essai sur le calcul intégral , which

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732-866: Is among the few schools in Paris that never had students as boarders: students who were not living with their parents worked, ate and slept in the neighbourhood via a network of "maitres de pension". The mix has gradually emerged in 1924 for preparatory classes for the grandes écoles , and 1975 for secondary classes. Over the course of its history the school has changed name several times: Preparatory classes are also very old and were treated to famous teachers such as Jean-Paul Sartre. 48°52′29.20″N 2°19′38.36″E  /  48.8747778°N 2.3273222°E  / 48.8747778; 2.3273222 Marquis de Condorcet Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet ( French: [maʁi ʒɑ̃ ɑ̃twan nikɔla də kaʁita maʁki də kɔ̃dɔʁsɛ] ; 17 September 1743 – 29 March 1794), known as Nicolas de Condorcet ,

793-436: Is more truth in this observation, but it still proves nothing since this difference is caused, not by nature, but by education and society..." His views on rights that must be afforded to women were not limited to education and citizenship but also social freedoms and protections that included the right for women to plan their own pregnancies, provision of access to birth control, and men's obligation to take responsibility for

854-417: Is that his friend Pierre Jean George Cabanis gave him a poison which he eventually used. However, some historians believe that he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was too loved and respected to be executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in his work L'élite, la mort et la révolution ) claims that Condorcet was killed with a mixture of Datura stramonium and opium. Condorcet was symbolically interred in

915-792: The American Philosophical Society (1775), the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1785), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1792) and also in Prussia and Russia. His political ideas, many in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably by John Adams who wrote two of his principal works of political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature and radical democracy. In 1774, Condorcet

976-570: The Church . In the same year he was elected as president of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks and lived in an apartment at Hôtel des Monnaies, Paris , across the Louvre. In 1791, Condorcet, along with Sophie de Grouchy, Thomas Paine , Etienne Dumont , Jacques-Pierre Brissot , and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titled Le Républicain , its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and

1037-575: The Panthéon in 1989, in honour of the bicentennial of the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central figure in the Enlightenment. His coffin, however, was empty as his remains, originally interred in the common cemetery of Bourg-la-Reine , were lost during the nineteenth century. In 1786 Condorcet married Sophie de Grouchy , who was more than twenty years his junior. Sophie, reckoned one of

1098-510: The dahlia ( New International Encyclopedia ). Indeed, he practically founded the trade in cut flowers on the French Riviera . He was also devoted to fishing, and in Les Soirées de Sainte-Adresse (1853) and Au bord de la mer (1860) he made use of his experiences. His reminiscences, Livre de bord , were published in 1879–1880. He died at Saint-Raphaël, Var . Karr's brother Eugène

1159-408: The 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. However she suggests his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction indicate different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed to proto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of

1220-509: The Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions ( Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité des voix ). It described several now-famous results, including Condorcet's jury theorem , which states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of

1281-579: The Assembly. Condorcet was not affiliated with any political party but counted many friends among the Girondins . He distanced himself from them during the National Convention , however, due to his distaste for their factionalism. In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project for the reformation of the education system, aiming to create a hierarchical system, under the authority of experts, who would work as

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1342-687: The Convention Nationale — and the Jacobin faction in particular — voted to have Condorcet arrested. He died in prison after a period of hiding from the French Revolutionary authorities. Condorcet was born in Ribemont (in present-day Aisne ), descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from the town of Condorcet in Dauphiné , of which they were long-time residents. Fatherless at

1403-693: The Convention – he proposed to send the king to work as a slave rower on galley ships . Condorcet was on the Constitution Committee and was the main author of the Girondin constitutional project . This constitution was not put to a vote. When the Montagnards gained control of the Convention, they wrote their own, the French Constitution of 1793 . Condorcet criticized the new work, and as a result, he

1464-518: The Earth where it has extended its empire; while we will see the genius of science and freedom shine beneath the most absurd superstitions, in the midst of the most barbaric intolerance. China offers us the same phenomenon, although the effects of this stupefying poison have been less fatal." For Condorcet's republicanism the nation needed enlightened citizens and education needed democracy to become truly public. Democracy implied free citizens, and ignorance

1525-588: The Principle of Population (1798) partly in response to Condorcet's views on the " perfectibility of society ." Condorcet took a leading role when the French Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for a rationalist reconstruction of society, and championed many liberal causes . As a result, in 1791 he was elected as a Paris representative in the Legislative Assembly , and then became the secretary of

1586-494: The city's 9th arrondissement . Founded in 1803, it is one of the four oldest high schools in Paris and also one of the most prestigious. Since its inception, various political eras have seen it given a number of different names, but its identity today honors the memory of the Marquis de Condorcet . Henri Bergson , Horace Finaly , Claude Lévi-Strauss , Marcel Proust , Jean-Luc Marion , Francis Poulenc and Paul Verlaine are some of

1647-507: The civil, political, and educational rights of women, Condorcet boldly challenges that unless women's natural inferiority to men could be proven, the denial of the aforementioned rights is an "act of tyranny" constituted by the newly formed French nation. About Islam and China he wrote: "the religion of Mohammed, the simplest in its dogmas, the least absurd in its practices, the most tolerant in its principles, seems to condemn to eternal slavery, to incurable stupidity, this entire vast portion of

1708-521: The constitutional drafting process, his convictions did not translate into concrete political action and he made limited efforts to push these issues on the agenda. Some scholars on the other hand, believe that this lack of action is not due to the weakness of his commitment but rather to the political atmosphere at the time and the absence of political appetite for gender equality on the part of decision-makers. Along with authors such as Mary Wollstonecraft , d'Alembert or Olympe de Gouges , Condorcet made

1769-433: The enlargement of basic political and social rights to include women. One of the most famous Enlightenment thinkers at the time, he was one of the first to make such a radical proposal. 'The rights of men stem exclusively from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable of acquiring moral ideas and of reasoning upon them. Since women have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the same rights. Either no member of

1830-403: The foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English-Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. There was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s and the liberal thought of the early 19th century. The Lycée Condorcet in

1891-411: The group is the correct decision increases as the number of members of the group increases, and Condorcet's paradox , which shows that majority preferences can become intransitive with three or more options – it is possible for a certain electorate to express a preference for A over B, a preference for B over C, and a preference for C over A , all from the same set of ballots. The paper also outlines

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1952-685: The guardians of the Enlightenment and who, independent of power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The project was judged to be contrary to republican and egalitarian virtues, handing the education of the Nation over to an aristocracy of savants, and Condorcet's proposal was not taken up by the Assembly. Several years later, in 1795, when the Thermidorians had gained in strength, the National Convention would adopt an educational plan based on Condorcet's proposal. He advocated women's suffrage for

2013-405: The help of philosophers such as Aristotle. Through this accumulation and sharing of knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to comprehend all the known facts of the natural world. The enlightenment of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment of the social and political world. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the perfect human existence and thus believed that

2074-616: The house of Jean-Baptiste Suard , a friend of his with whom he had resided in 1772, but he was refused on the basis that he would be betrayed by one of their residents. Two days later, he was arrested in Clamart and imprisoned in Bourg-la-Reine (or, as it was known during the Revolution, Bourg-l'Égalité , "Equality Borough" rather than "Queen's Borough") where, after another two days, he was found dead in his cell. The most widely accepted theory

2135-418: The human race has any true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes against the rights of another, whatever his religion, colour or sex, automatically forfeits his own.' Like fellow Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his book Emile ou De l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified education as crucial to the emancipation of individuals. However, where Rousseau endorsed

2196-478: The ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, and proposed projects of political, administrative and economic reforms intended to transform France. In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of the Monnaie , but the request was refused, and he continued serving in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wrote Vie de M. Turgot (1786),

2257-451: The journal, or magazine, were published from 1839-43. Karr attempted to revive the publication of Les Guêpes from 1852–55, an undertaking doomed to failure given the conditions of state censorship (under the regime of Napoleon III ). In 1848, he founded Le Journal . Karr is remembered for many of his statements, including the well-known aphorism plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose usually translated as "the more things change,

2318-440: The loving hopes he has for his daughter as a father, but also for his egalitarian vision of the rights and opportunities for women in society. Condorcet was survived by his widow and four-year-old Eliza. Sophie died in 1822, never having remarried, and having published all her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, wife of former United Irishman Arthur O'Connor . The Condorcet-O'Connors published

2379-480: The major texts of the Enlightenment and of historical thought. It narrates the history of civilization as one of progress in the sciences, claims an intimate connection between scientific progress and the development of human rights and justice, and outlines the features of a future rational society entirely shaped by scientific knowledge. On 25 March 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left his hideout and attempted to flee Paris. He went to seek refuge at

2440-406: The moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as

2501-585: The more they stay the same" . On the proposal to abolish capital punishment, he wrote: " je veux bien que messieurs les assassins commencent " (i.e., "let the gentlemen who do the murders take the first step"). Karr is one of the French artists and writers caricatured by Benjamin Roubaud in his drawing Grand Chemin de la Postérité . Karr's head is drawn on the body of a wasp (alluding to Les Guêpes ) and annotated "KARicature" (sic). The short story "Les Willis"

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2562-460: The most beautiful women of the day, became an accomplished salon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished translator of Thomas Paine and Adam Smith . She was intelligent and well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The marriage was a strong one, and Sophie visited her husband regularly while he remained in hiding. Although she began proceedings for divorce in January 1794, it

2623-551: The new government, writing an article for Journal de la Société de 1789 , and by publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité ("For the Admission to the Rights of Citizenship For Women") in 1790. At the Trial of Louis XVI in December 1792, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty albeit supporting the trial itself, spoke out against the execution of the King during the public vote at

2684-453: The past revealed an order that could be understood in terms of the progressive development of human capabilities, showing that humanity's "present state, and those through which it has passed, are a necessary constitution of the moral composition of humankind"; that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less secure from political revolutions"; that social evils are

2745-404: The progression of the human race would inevitably continue throughout the course of our existence. He envisioned man as continually progressing toward a perfectly utopian society. He believed in the great potential towards growth that man possessed. However, Condorcet stressed that for this to be a possibility man must unify regardless of race, religion, culture or gender. To this end, he became

2806-561: The rejection of constitutional monarchy. The journal's theme was that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading and that liberty is freedom from domination. In 1795, Condorcet's book Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind was published after his death by his wife Sophie de Grouchy. It dealt with theoretical thought on perfecting the human mind and analyzing intellectual history based on social arithmetic. Thomas Malthus wrote An Essay on

2867-413: The result of education". Condorcet's whole plea for gender equality is founded on the belief that the attribution of rights and authority comes from a false assumption that men possess reason and women do not. He even goes on to argue that women possess their own form of reason that is different from their male compatriots but by no means lesser however this is nonetheless an artificial difference: "There

2928-436: The result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature. He was innovative in suggesting that scientific medicine might in the future significantly extend the human life span, perhaps even indefinitely, such that future humans only die of accident, murder and suicide rather than simply old age or disease. Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an early transhumanist . Condorcet's writings were

2989-468: The students who attended the Lycée Condorcet. Some of the school's famous teachers include Jean Beaufret , Paul Bénichou , Jean-Marie Guyau , Jean-Paul Sartre , and Stéphane Mallarmé . During the greater part of the nineteenth century, the school was the "great Liberal High School" on the right bank with its relatively flexible regime that was chosen by the progressive bourgeoisie for its sons. It

3050-524: The vein of autobiographical romance with which he had made his first success. Geneviève (1838) is one of his best stories, and his Voyage autour de Mon Jardin (1845) was deservedly popular. Others were Feu Bressier (1848), and Fort en thème (1853), which had some influence in stimulating educational reform. In 1855 he went to live in Nice , where he indulged his predilections for floriculture , and gave his name to more than one new variety, notably

3111-430: The welfare of children they have fathered, both legitimate and illegitimate and women's right to seek divorce. He also advocated for the criminalization of rape, declaring that it “violates the property which everyone has in her person”. Scholars often disagree on the true impact that Condorcet's work had on pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors point out that, when he was eventually given some responsibilities in

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3172-486: Was a French political economist and mathematician . His ideas, including support for free markets , public education , constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment , of which he has been called the "last witness", and Enlightenment rationalism . A critic of the constitution proposed by Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles in 1793,

3233-509: Was a talented engineer, and his niece Carme Karr was a writer, journalist and suffragist in La Roche-Mabile . In April 1832, Karr had a shortlived relationship with actress Juliette Drouet . He allegedly borrowed all of her money and never paid it back. Karr was married to Louise Estelle Clémentine (née Renard de Mentule, born 9 December 1815). They first met in late 1833, and married on 10 February 1834. Their first and only child, Thérèse,

3294-464: Was appointed inspector general of the Paris mint by Turgot. From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy and political matters. In the following years, he took up the defense of human rights in general, and of women's and Blacks' rights in particular (an abolitionist , he became active in the Society of the Friends of the Blacks in the 1780s). He supported

3355-418: Was at the insistence of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property from expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their young daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine. During his time in hiding, Condorcet penned a poignant letter to his daughter, who was then a toddler, offering his advice and wisdom to her as she grows to become an adult. The letter stands as a testament, not only for

3416-406: Was born on 2 September 1834. By 1845, the couple had been separated for eight and a half years. In 1839, Karr became editor of Le Figaro , to which he had been a constant contributor; and he also started a monthly journal, Les Guêpes ( The Wasps ), of a keenly satirical tone, a publication which brought him the reputation of someone of "imperishable words" and biting wit. The first volumes of

3477-414: Was branded a traitor. On 3 October 1793, a warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest. The warrant forced Condorcet into hiding. He hid for some months in the house of Mme. Vernet in Paris, where he wrote Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain ( Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Spirit ), which was published posthumously in 1795 and is considered one of

3538-426: Was not made to last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to prolong the revolutionary experience but to establish political rules and legal mechanisms that would insure future changes without revolution. In a democratic city there would be no Bastille to be seized. Public education would form free and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries. Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since

3599-507: Was the basis of Giacomo Puccini 's opera Le Villi (1884). The bamboo species Bambusa multiplex Alphonse Karr was named in his honour. Numerous roads have been named after him including: The Collège Alphonse Karr is in the resort town of Saint-Raphaël on the Côte d'Azur. Coll%C3%A8ge Bourbon The Lycée Condorcet ( French: [lise kɔ̃dɔʁsɛ] ) is a secondary school in Paris, France, located at 8, rue du Havre, in

3660-430: Was the source of servitude. Citizens had to be provided with the necessary knowledge to exercise their freedom and understand the rights and laws that guaranteed their enjoyment. Although education could not eliminate disparities in talent, all citizens, including women, had the right to free education. In opposition to those who relied on revolutionary enthusiasm to form the new citizens, Condorcet maintained that revolution

3721-663: Was well received, launching his career as a mathematician. He went on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to the Académie royale des Sciences . In 1772, he published another paper on integral calculus . Soon after, he met Jacques Turgot , a French economist, and the two became friends. Turgot became an administrator under King Louis XV in 1772 and Controller-General of Finance under Louis XVI in 1774. Condorcet worked with Leonhard Euler and Benjamin Franklin . He soon became an honorary member of many foreign academies and philosophic societies, including

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