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52-731: Lepomis or true sunfish is a genus of North American freshwater fish from the family Centrarchidae in the order Perciformes ( perch -like fish). The generic name Lepomis derives from the Greek λεπίς ("scale") and πῶμα ("cover", "plug", " operculum "). The genus' most recognizable species is perhaps the bluegill . Some Lepomis species can grow to a maximum overall length of 41 cm (16 in), though most average around 10–20 cm (3.9–7.9 in). Many species are sought by anglers as popular panfishes , and large numbers are bred and stocked in lakes , rivers , ponds and wetlands . They are widely distributed throughout

104-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

156-604: A higher concentration of O is left behind for foraminifera to utilize. The >180° phase reversal in the 41-kyr obliquity cycle around 14.0 to 13.8 Ma has also been interpreted as a signal of the EAIE. During the MMCT, the latitudinal precipitation gradient declined in Europe, though it increased during short term warming periods superimposed on the broader cooling trend, whereas the seasonality of mean temperature increased. Global cooling during

208-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

260-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

312-661: A partitioned mixed-model Bayesian analysis of a seven gene dataset of mitochondrial and nuclear gene DNA sequences by Near et al. (2005), expanded with fossil species. Subgenera in bold follow Bailey (1938): L. humilis [REDACTED] L. macrochirus [REDACTED] L. gulosus [REDACTED] L. kansasensis L. serratus L. symmetricus L. cyanellus [REDACTED] L. auritus [REDACTED] L. marginatus L. peltastes * L. megalotis [REDACTED] L. gibbosus [REDACTED] L. microlophus [REDACTED] L. punctatus L. miniatus L. sp. A *** L. peltastes

364-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

416-692: A role. One of the primary effects of the climatic cooling that took place during this time period was the growth of the EAIS, termed the East Antarctic Ice Sheet Expansion (EAIE). A thermal shift from wet to cold-based glaciers is recorded from the Transantarctic Mountains about 13.94 Ma, reflecting a mean annual temperature drop of 25-30 °C. Significant sections of ice on the Antarctic continent are believed to have started growth at

468-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

520-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

572-532: Is caused by some set of recurrent cycles or biologic factors. A sharp drop in carbonate production, known as the Miocene Carbonate Crash ( MCC ), occurred during the early Tortonian, shortly after the cooling event; this event is generally regarded to have been induced by the changes in thermohaline circulation resulting from the Middle Miocene disruption. Changes in the intensity and seasonality of

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624-405: Is considered a significant extinction event and has been analyzed in terms of the importance of there being a possible periodicity between extinction events. A study from David Raup and Jack Sepkoski found that there is a statistically significant mean periodicity (where P is less than .01) of about 26 million years for 12 major extinction events. There is debate whether this potential periodicity

676-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

728-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

780-564: Is that increased silicate weathering of the uplifting Himalayas caused the MMCT, but this is contradicted by geological evidence from the Indus River system. As well significant changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, alterations to ocean circulation brought about major climatic and biotic changes. Oceanic circulation changes that took place during the MMCT are defined by increases in Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) production,

832-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

884-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

936-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

988-582: The Langhian stage , and resulted in the growth of ice sheet volumes globally, and the reestablishment of the ice of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS). The term Middle Miocene disruption, alternatively the Middle Miocene extinction or Middle Miocene extinction peak, refers to a wave of extinctions of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred during this climatic interval. This period

1040-422: The Middle Miocene disruption that resulted in increased aridity on the plains of North America and a transition from savannah to grasslands, although the relevance of these environmental changes to the evolution of Lepomis is unclear. No fossils unambiguously assigned to genus Lepomis are currently known from the putative stem-lineage that must have existed between 25 and 15 million years ago, spanning most of

1092-399: The early Miocene . Currently, four extinct species of Lepomis are known from the fossil record: There are at least two as yet undescribed fossil species of Lepomis that reach back to the middle Miocene : Two other more recent fossil species appear to be closely allied to Lepomis gulosus , and indeed their earliest occurrence may be close to the divergence of the lineage leading to

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1144-606: The freshwater lakes and river tributaries of the United States and Canada , and several species have been translocated and flourished around the world, even becoming pests . Aquarium trade in some Lepomis species is prohibited in Germany for this reason. Lepomis species, among others, are sometimes referred to as bream , but the term is also used to refer explicitly to the unrelated European cypriniform fish of genus Abramis . Phylogeny of all Lepomis species based on

1196-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

1248-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

1300-626: The Indian monsoon have been suggested to have brought about this change in ocean circulation. Another hypothesis for the crash involves the shrinkage and shoaling of the Central American Seaway, limiting water mass exchange between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Evidence for this event is known from the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea, suggesting

1352-619: The MMCT caused aridification in North Africa and South Asia . In the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG), the cessation of kaolin-producing pedogenic processes occurred at the start of the MMCT and has been used as a proxy marker for the end of the MMCO. Southwestern Australia exhibited the most arid conditions it had witnessed over any interval of the Miocene, while northwestern Australia

1404-515: The MMCT. The cooling of the Southern Ocean was coupled to the growth of the EAIS. An additional suggested cause for the Middle Miocene disruption has been attributed to a shift from a solar insolation cycle that is obliquity dominated to one that is dominated by eccentricity (see Milankovitch cycles ). This change would have been significant enough for conditions near the Antarctic continent to allow for glaciation. The Middle Miocene disruption

1456-652: The Miocene Climatic Optimum (18 to 16 Ma) in Central Europe (45-42°N palaeolatitude). This was then followed by a major and permanent cooling step marked by the Mid Miocene disruption between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma. Two crocodilians of the genera Gavialosuchus and Diplocynodon were noted to have been extant in these northern latitudes prior to the permanent cooling step, but then became extinct between 14 and 13.5 Ma. Another indicator that would lead to extinctions

1508-592: The Monterey Hypothesis. These sites of CO 2 drawdown are thought to have been extensive enough to drop atmospheric concentrations in CO 2 from about 300 to 140ppm and lead to processes of global cooling that helped in the expansion of the EAIS . Organic carbon burial on land, evidenced by widespread formation of lignite deposits at this time, also contributed heavily to the reduction in p CO 2 . Another hypothesis

1560-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

1612-438: The beginning of the Middle Miocene disruption and continued to expand until about 10 Ma. This growth has been attributed primarily to orbitally paced changes in oceanic and atmospheric currents, with possible amplification by a significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide (ppm): atmospheric CO 2 fell temporarily from about 300 to 140 ppm as estimated by the relationship between atmospheric levels of CO 2 and pH levels in

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1664-405: The decline of carbonate-producing marine organisms was a global phenomenon. One of the other primary effects of the climatic cooling during the Middle Miocene was the biotic impact on terrestrial and oceanic lifeforms. A primary example of these extinctions is indicated by the observed occurrence of Varanidae , chameleons , Cordylidae , Tomistominae , Alligatoridae , and giant turtles through

1716-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

1768-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

1820-561: The genus Lepomis diverged from the black bass in genus Micropterus , its sister taxon, about 25 million years ago. The deepest split among currently living species of Lepomis is dated to ~15 million years ago and separates genus Lepomis into two clades : clade I that leads to the modern bluegill, orange-spotted, green, and warmouth sunfish, and a clade II that includes the modern long-ear, red-breasted, pumpkinseed, redear, and red-spotted sunfish (see section 'Phylogeny' above). The timing of this speciation event roughly corresponds with

1872-596: The halting of saline water delivery to the Southern Ocean from the Indian Ocean , and additional North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) production. The reduction in water transport from the warm Indian Ocean to the cool Southern Ocean is believed to be responsible for the increase in AABW production. The Tethys Seaway is believed to have closed around this time, exacerbating the disruptions of ocean circulation patterns that caused

1924-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

1976-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

2028-448: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Middle Miocene disruption The Middle Miocene Climatic Transition ( MMCT ) was a relatively steady period of climatic cooling that occurred around the middle of the Miocene , roughly 14 million years ago (Ma), during

2080-431: The modern warmouth from other species of Lepomis : There are currently 13 recognized species in this genus: There are also 22 recognized hybrids: Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

2132-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

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2184-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

2236-407: The ocean determined by boron isotopic levels in calcium carbonate. One of the primary indicators for the significant global ice sheet growth is the higher concentration of O found in benthic foraminifera from oceanic sediment cores during this time period. During periods of ice sheet growth, the lighter O isotopes found in ocean water are drawn out as precipitation and consolidate in ice sheets while

2288-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

2340-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

2392-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

2444-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

2496-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

2548-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

2600-581: Was also hyperarid. In the Qaidam Basin , silicate weathering sharply decreased around 12.6 Ma, indicating a major aridification event. The primary cause of the cooling that came out of the MMCO was changing atmospheric CO 2 levels. Falling CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere has been linked to drawdown of the gas into organic material deposited along continental margins like the Monterey Formation of coastal California , an explanation known as

2652-472: Was not originally included in the analysis by Near et al. (2005) and is included here based on commonly accepted sister relationship to L. megalotis . See section 'Evolutionary History' below for explanation. Phylogenetic position in clade II uncertain. See section 'Fossil record' for clarification. Phylogenetic reconstructions using a combination of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences calibrated with fossils to estimate ages of divergences suggests that

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2704-625: Was preceded by the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO), a period of relative warmth from 18 to 14 Ma. Cooling that led to the Middle Miocene disruption is primarily attributed CO 2 being pulled out of the Earth's atmosphere by organic material before becoming caught in different locations like the Monterey Formation . These may have been amplified by changes in oceanic and atmospheric circulation due to continental drift . Additionally, orbitally paced factors may also have played

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