The Palala or Lephalala River , also called the Rhooebok-river by Thomas Baines , is a river in South Africa . This river's catchment basin is a sub-watershed of the Limpopo River .
48-775: It is a significant watercourse in the Waterberg area of Limpopo Province . The river drains much of the Lapalala Wilderness area and considerable additional lands that are important habitat for native wildlife in a zone with considerable ongoing bushveld restoration. The predominantly dry deciduous forest community of the upland portion of the Palala River watershed is home to many large African mammals including Blue Wildebeest , Giraffe , White Rhino and numerous bovids . The Palala River has been shown to exhibit high water quality with very clear flowing waters, especially in
96-798: A dry deciduous forest; according to Hogan: "These sub-habitats include high plateau savanna , specialized shaded cliff vegetation system and riparian zone habitat with associated marshes ". The savanna consists of rolling grasslands and a semi- deciduous forest , with trees such as mountain syringa , silver cluster-leaf and lavender tree . The canopy is mostly leafless during the dry winter. Native grasses include signal grass , goose grass and heather-topped grass . Indigenous grasses provide graze to support native species including impala , kudu , klipspringer and blue wildebeest . Some Pachypodium habitats are found especially in isolated kopje formations. Other indigenous mammals include giraffe , white rhinoceros and warthog . Snakes include
144-798: A dry deciduous forest; according to Hogan: "These sub-habitats include high plateau savanna , specialized shaded cliff vegetation system and riparian zone habitat with associated marshes ". The savanna consists of rolling grasslands and a semi- deciduous forest , with trees such as mountain syringa , silver cluster-leaf and lavender tree . The canopy is mostly leafless during the dry winter. Native grasses include signal grass , goose grass and heather-topped grass . Indigenous grasses provide graze to support native species including impala , kudu , klipspringer and blue wildebeest . Some Pachypodium habitats are found especially in isolated kopje formations. Other indigenous mammals include giraffe , white rhinoceros and warthog . Snakes include
192-567: A few peaks rising up to 2,000 m above sea level. Vaalwater town is located just north of the mountain range. The extensive rock formation was shaped by hundreds of millions of years of riverine erosion to yield diverse bluff and butte landform . The ecosystem can be characterised as a dry deciduous forest or Bushveld . Within the Waterberg there are archaeological finds dating to the Stone Age , and nearby are early evolutionary finds related to
240-402: A substantial sequence, up to 3 000 metres in thickness in places, of fluvial arenaceous sediments derived from an ancient highland several hundred kilometres to the north-east, and deposited in an elongated, fault-bound basin during a period between 1 900 and 1 600 million years ago. The preservation of these un-deformed sandy strata, which include evidence of the first occurrence of free oxygen in
288-447: A thousand metres above the surrounding plains. If there were ever younger rocks deposited on top of the Waterberg strata in this region, no evidence remains of the fact. Beneath the thick sedimentary pile lie 2 100 million year-old sedimentary and igneous rocks which elsewhere may be found to host economic deposits of platinum, nickel, iron ore and tin; but no mineral deposits of any economic value have been, or are likely to be discovered in
336-724: Is that the Waterberg is the source of four major perennial rivers, of which the Palala is the largest, all of them flowing eventually northwards into the Limpopo. The other major rivers are the Mogalakwena, the Mokolo and the Matlabas. The acidic nature of the sandstone results in acidic groundwater which leaches nutritious mineral content from the soils, rendering them for the most part low in fertility and poor in carrying capacity. Perhaps counter-intuitively, it
384-509: Is the first region in the northern part of South Africa to be named as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO . The underlying rock formation derives from the Kaapvaal Craton , formed as a precursor island roughly 2.7 billion years ago. This crustal formation became the base of the Waterberg, which was further transformed by upward extrusion of igneous rocks. These extruded rocks, containing minerals such as vanadium and platinum , are called
432-418: Is the largest private game reserve in the Waterberg and the Limpopo province. Waterberg Biosphere The Waterberg ( Northern Sotho : Thaba Meetse ) is a mountainous massif of approximately 654,033 hectare in north Limpopo Province , South Africa . The average height of the mountain range is 600 m with a few peaks rising up to 2,000 m above sea level. Vaalwater town is located just north of
480-533: Is this low nutritive, dystrophic content of the soil that is largely responsible for the extremely high biodiversity that characterises the Waterberg plateau. Lapalala has thirteen known rock art sites, some close to the Lephalala River, and others near the Blocklands River. Several of the painted sites are in small rock shelters, others on sandstone boulders with smooth surfaces. Two distinct groups peopled
528-741: The Bushveld Igneous Complex . The original extent of this rock upthrust involved about 250,000 square kilometres, and is sometimes called the Waterberg Supergroup . Sedimentary deposition from rivers cutting through Waterberg endured until roughly 1.5 billion years ago. In more recent time (around 250 million years ago) the Kaapvaal craton collided with the supercontinent Gondwana , and split Gondwana into its modern-day continents. Waterberg today contains mesas , buttes and some kopje outcrops. Some of cliffs stand up to 550 meters above
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#1733086292491576-561: The Bushveld Igneous Complex . The original extent of this rock upthrust involved about 250,000 square kilometres, and is sometimes called the Waterberg Supergroup . Sedimentary deposition from rivers cutting through Waterberg endured until roughly 1.5 billion years ago. In more recent time (around 250 million years ago) the Kaapvaal craton collided with the supercontinent Gondwana , and split Gondwana into its modern-day continents. Waterberg today contains mesas , buttes and some kopje outcrops. Some of cliffs stand up to 550 meters above
624-531: The Limpopo River which flows easterly to discharge into the Indian Ocean . The river bushwillow is a riparian tree in this habitat. These riparian zones offer habitat for birds, reptiles and mammals that require more water than plateau species. The riverine areas are inhabited by the apex predator Nile crocodile and the hippopotamus . These wet habitats have reduced numbers of water-living insects, and
672-422: The Limpopo River which flows easterly to discharge into the Indian Ocean . The river bushwillow is a riparian tree in this habitat. These riparian zones offer habitat for birds, reptiles and mammals that require more water than plateau species. The riverine areas are inhabited by the apex predator Nile crocodile and the hippopotamus . These wet habitats have reduced numbers of water-living insects, and
720-486: The Waterberg Biosphere , a massif of approximately 15,000 square kilometers. Waterberg is the first region in the northern part of South Africa to be named as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO . The extensive rock formation was shaped by hundreds of millions of years of riverine erosion to yield diverse bluff and butte landform . The ecosystem can be characterised as a dry deciduous forest or Bushveld . Within
768-433: The black mamba and spitting cobra . In 1905 Eugene Marais studied these snakes of the Waterberg. Some birds seen are the black-headed oriole and the white-backed vulture . Predators include the leopard , hyena and lion . Vegetative cliff habitats are abundant in the Waterberg due to the extensive historic riverine erosion . The African porcupine uses the protection of these cliffside caves. Some trees cling to
816-433: The black mamba and spitting cobra . In 1905 Eugene Marais studied these snakes of the Waterberg. Some birds seen are the black-headed oriole and the white-backed vulture . Predators include the leopard , hyena and lion . Vegetative cliff habitats are abundant in the Waterberg due to the extensive historic riverine erosion . The African porcupine uses the protection of these cliffside caves. Some trees cling to
864-578: The tsetse fly . The ensuing epidemic of sleeping sickness depopulated the plains, but at higher elevations man survived, because the fly cannot survive above 600 meters. Later people left the first Stone Age artefacts recovered in northern South Africa . Starting about the year 1300 AD, Nguni settlers arrived with new technologies, including the ability to build dry-stone walls, which techniques were then used to add defensive works to their Iron Age forts, some of which walls survive to today. Archaeologists continue to excavate Waterberg to shed light on
912-578: The tsetse fly . The ensuing epidemic of sleeping sickness depopulated the plains, but at higher elevations man survived, because the fly cannot survive above 600 meters. Later people left the first Stone Age artefacts recovered in northern South Africa . Starting about the year 1300 AD, Nguni settlers arrived with new technologies, including the ability to build dry-stone walls, which techniques were then used to add defensive works to their Iron Age forts, some of which walls survive to today. Archaeologists continue to excavate Waterberg to shed light on
960-502: The Nguni culture and the associated dry-stone architecture. The first white settlers arrived in Waterberg in 1808 and the first naturalist a Swede appeared just before mid 19th century. Around the mid 19th century, a group of Afrikaner travellers set out from Cape Town in search of Jerusalem . Arriving in Waterberg, they mis-estimated their distance and thought they had reached Egypt . After battles between Boer settlers and tribesmen,
1008-454: The Nguni culture and the associated dry-stone architecture. The first white settlers arrived in Waterberg in 1808 and the first naturalist a Swede appeared just before mid 19th century. Around the mid 19th century, a group of Afrikaner travellers set out from Cape Town in search of Jerusalem . Arriving in Waterberg, they mis-estimated their distance and thought they had reached Egypt . After battles between Boer settlers and tribesmen,
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#17330862924911056-483: The Waterberg in the last 1000 years and both groups were responsible for the art in Lapalala's reserve. Bushmen, who lived a mobile hunter-gatherer way of life, produced ‘fine-line’, well-drawn art, using brushes made from animal hair, and red and yellow paint from powdered, iron-rich rocks (ochre) mixed with liquids such as water, blood or fat. White paint derived from ash or clay, and this medium preserves badly compared to
1104-546: The Waterberg is thus considered an almost malaria -free region. As of 2006 about 80,000 people lived on the Waterberg plateau, which is part of the Bushveld district of Limpopo Province of South Africa. After cattle grazing wrought ecological havoc in the mid 1900s, the land owners of the region became aware of the benefits of restoring habitat to attract and protect the original species of antelope, white rhino , giraffe , hippopotami , and other species whose numbers dropped in
1152-495: The Waterberg is thus considered an almost malaria -free region. As of 2006 about 80,000 people lived on the Waterberg plateau, which is part of the Bushveld district of Limpopo Province of South Africa. After cattle grazing wrought ecological havoc in the mid 1900s, the land owners of the region became aware of the benefits of restoring habitat to attract and protect the original species of antelope, white rhino , giraffe , hippopotami , and other species whose numbers dropped in
1200-399: The Waterberg there are archaeological finds dating to the Stone Age , and nearby are early evolutionary finds related to the origin of humans . Waterberg Biosphere The Waterberg ( Northern Sotho : Thaba Meetse ) is a mountainous massif of approximately 654,033 hectare in north Limpopo Province , South Africa . The average height of the mountain range is 600 m with
1248-569: The cliff areas, including the paperbark false-thorn , that have flaking bark hanging from their thick trunks. Another tree in this habitat is the fever tree , thought by Bushmen to have special power to allow communication with the dead. It is found on cliffs above the Palala River including one site used for prehistoric ceremonies, which is also a location of some intact rock paintings. Riparian zones are associated with various rivers that cut through Waterberg. These surface waters all drain to
1296-515: The cliff areas, including the paperbark false-thorn , that have flaking bark hanging from their thick trunks. Another tree in this habitat is the fever tree , thought by Bushmen to have special power to allow communication with the dead. It is found on cliffs above the Palala River including one site used for prehistoric ceremonies, which is also a location of some intact rock paintings. Riparian zones are associated with various rivers that cut through Waterberg. These surface waters all drain to
1344-465: The early Earth atmosphere, is due to their having been laid down on a remnant of the stable, primordial Kaapvaal craton, which has allowed them to remain almost unaltered and subject to little or no regional metamorphism despite their great age. Subsequent uplift of these sediments, collectively named the Waterberg Group, has resulted in their forming today a plateau, elevated in the south by as much as
1392-526: The era of intense cattle grazing. The rise in eco-tourism has stimulated interest in soil conservation practices to restore original grass species to the Waterberg. The land management practises required are expensive, but repay the landowner with added value in wildlife habitat. There is also a trend for larger farms and open space areas with the resultant advantage of fence removal. This outcome not only benefits large mammal migration, but yields an improved gene pool . [1] The Waterberg Biosphere Reserve
1440-526: The era of intense cattle grazing. The rise in eco-tourism has stimulated interest in soil conservation practices to restore original grass species to the Waterberg. The land management practises required are expensive, but repay the landowner with added value in wildlife habitat. There is also a trend for larger farms and open space areas with the resultant advantage of fence removal. This outcome not only benefits large mammal migration, but yields an improved gene pool . [1] The Waterberg Biosphere Reserve
1488-477: The higher areas of the Waterberg for summer (December to March) game". Bushmen entered Waterberg around two thousand years ago. They produced rock paintings at Lapalala within the Waterberg, including depictions of rhinoceros and antelope . Early Iron Age settlers in Waterberg were Bantu , who had brought cattle to the region. The Bantu created a problem in Waterberg, since cattle reduced grassland caused invasion of brush species leading to an outbreak of
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1536-477: The higher areas of the Waterberg for summer (December to March) game". Bushmen entered Waterberg around two thousand years ago. They produced rock paintings at Lapalala within the Waterberg, including depictions of rhinoceros and antelope . Early Iron Age settlers in Waterberg were Bantu , who had brought cattle to the region. The Bantu created a problem in Waterberg, since cattle reduced grassland caused invasion of brush species leading to an outbreak of
1584-425: The mountain range. The extensive rock formation was shaped by hundreds of millions of years of riverine erosion to yield diverse bluff and butte landform . The ecosystem can be characterised as a dry deciduous forest or Bushveld . Within the Waterberg there are archaeological finds dating to the Stone Age , and nearby are early evolutionary finds related to the origin of humans . Waterberg ( Thaba Meetse )
1632-505: The origin of humans . Waterberg ( Thaba Meetse ) is the first region in the northern part of South Africa to be named as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO . The underlying rock formation derives from the Kaapvaal Craton , formed as a precursor island roughly 2.7 billion years ago. This crustal formation became the base of the Waterberg, which was further transformed by upward extrusion of igneous rocks. These extruded rocks, containing minerals such as vanadium and platinum , are called
1680-615: The plains, with exposed multi-coloured sandstone. The sandstone formations could retain groundwater sufficient to make a suitable environment for primitive man. The cliff overhangs offered natural shelters for these early humans. The first human ancestors may have been at Waterberg as early as three million years ago, since Makapansgat , 40 kilometres distant, has yielded skeletons of Australopithecus africanus . Hogan suggests that Homo erectus , whose evidence remains were also discovered in Makapansgat , "may have purposefully moved into
1728-562: The plains, with exposed multi-coloured sandstone. The sandstone formations could retain groundwater sufficient to make a suitable environment for primitive man. The cliff overhangs offered natural shelters for these early humans. The first human ancestors may have been at Waterberg as early as three million years ago, since Makapansgat , 40 kilometres distant, has yielded skeletons of Australopithecus africanus . Hogan suggests that Homo erectus , whose evidence remains were also discovered in Makapansgat , "may have purposefully moved into
1776-466: The races co-existed until around 1900. The Boers brought further cattle grazing , multiplying the impacts of indigenous tribes. By the beginning of the 20th century there were an estimated 200 western inhabitants of the Waterberg, and grassland loss began to have a severe impact upon native wildlife populations. There are several sub-habitats within the Waterberg Biosphere, which is fundamentally
1824-404: The races co-existed until around 1900. The Boers brought further cattle grazing , multiplying the impacts of indigenous tribes. By the beginning of the 20th century there were an estimated 200 western inhabitants of the Waterberg, and grassland loss began to have a severe impact upon native wildlife populations. There are several sub-habitats within the Waterberg Biosphere, which is fundamentally
1872-400: The red paint that soaks into the rock. Bushman art depicts a variety of antelope, in particular, hartebeest and kudu. The animals are sometimes realistically drawn and on other occasions the creature represented is an imaginative combination of hartebeest or kudu features with human attributes. This is because Bushman art is a religious expression and the artist was trying to convey beliefs about
1920-518: The river's health, specimens of the North African catfish, Clarias gariepinus , were captured within reaches of the Lapalala Wilderness. A healthy population of male and female fish was found in the river's upper reaches within the Lapalala Wilderness, manifesting normal body mass averaging approximately 1.1 kilograms; moreover, this fish population from the higher reaches of the Palala River
1968-462: The species cannot be recognised. This ‘farmer’ art preserves badly. People lived in Lapalala in the Middle Stone Age because stone tools predating 30,000 years ago can be found in several shelters. Thereafter there seems to have been a long gap in occupation and there is presently no evidence that people returned to Lapalala before about 1000 years ago. Much of the Palala River course is through
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2016-457: The spirit world, and experiences during altered states of consciousness by ‘healers’ in the community. The elongated human figures in the art are, for example, designed to explain the stretched feeling that a healer may experience while in trance. The second group of people occupying Lapalala comprised Bantu-speaking, Iron Age farmers who settled in the valleys where dolerite provided fertile soils for their sorghum and millet crops, and where there
2064-400: The uppermost regions; correspondingly biotic health has been assessed as healthy using the North African catfish as a bio-marker. Interesting prehistoric rock paintings exist on bluffs along the river in the Lapalala Wilderness area. There are a variety of fauna that inhabit the Palala River including fish , Nile crocodile , African Rock Python and hippopotamus . In a 2004 study of
2112-481: The well-travelled, winnowed Waterberg sediments. The Waterberg plateau enjoys generally greater rainfall than is the average for the country as a whole, ranging from over 1000mm in the south to below 400mm in the north. The impermeable nature of the predominant sandstone strata, and its characteristic lack of substantial subterranean aquifers, means that most of the rainfall received across the plateau soon runs off rather than contributing to groundwater resources. Thus it
2160-683: Was adequate grazing and water for cattle, sheep and goats. These people built semi-permanent villages and from about the 17th century, stone kraals became prominent features on Lapalala. The Iron Age farmers had elaborate initiation practices for boys at puberty and groups of boys would be isolated in remote places, like rock shelters, for as long as a month. During this time they would be circumcised and taught cultural beliefs. Amongst these, they would learn about animals representing specific regiments. The boys would then paint these animals on rock faces. They used their fingers dipped in white clay, so their paintings are mere approximations of animals and most often
2208-553: Was designated in 2001. It has a total area of 654 033 hectares. Marakele National Park is found on the western edge of the biosphere reserve. The Welgevonden Game Reserve covers 37,500 hectares of the plateau. The Kololo Game Reserve covers 3000 hectares, part of which is in the Welgevonden Private Game Reserve, and part of which is completely protected. The Lapalala Wilderness Nature Reserve, just north of Melkrivier covers approximately 48’000 hectares and
2256-478: Was designated in 2001. It has a total area of 654 033 hectares. Marakele National Park is found on the western edge of the biosphere reserve. The Welgevonden Game Reserve covers 37,500 hectares of the plateau. The Kololo Game Reserve covers 3000 hectares, part of which is in the Welgevonden Private Game Reserve, and part of which is completely protected. The Lapalala Wilderness Nature Reserve, just north of Melkrivier covers approximately 48’000 hectares and
2304-414: Was found to be free of parasites and also free of liver damage. The health of the upper reaches was such that the upper Lapala was used in subsequent studies as the healthy control group to compare to other South African rivers which were more polluted from discharge of untreated sewage and agricultural wastes within their watersheds. The rock strata through which the Palala River has incised comprise
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