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75-706: León Gawaran Guinto Sr. (June 28, 1886 – July 10, 1962) was a public servant in the Philippines from the Commonwealth period up to the post-war era, best remembered as the war-time Mayor of the City of Greater Manila in the Philippines. Guinto was born to Juan P. Guinto and Pia Gawaran in the village of San Nicolas in Bacoor , Cavite province. He completed his early education from his home town and earned his college degree from

150-537: A collegium dedicated to managing the streets, and had a centuriate assembly dedicated to them. The carnifex punished slaves and foreigners, unlike lictores who punished Romans. They were the tax collectors. The name coactor is derived from its latin meaning: "to compel, to force". SImilary to accensi, lictores were public officers tasked to assist magistrates since the times of the Roman kingdom (753 BC – 509 BC) or even earlier Etruscan times. The number of lictores

225-877: A competitive examination for the Central Superior Services of Pakistan and other civil-service posts; Pakistan inherited this system from the British Raj -era Indian Civil Service . Pakistan has federal civil servants serving in federal government offices, with staff selected through the Federal Public Service Commission. Similarly, Pakistani provinces select their own public servants through provincial Public Service Commissions. The federal services have some quota against provincial posts, while provincial services have some quota in federal services. The ROC constitution specifies that public servant cannot be employed without examination. The employment

300-455: A clear division between staff responsible for routine ("mechanical") work, and those engaged in policy formulation and implementation in an "administrative" class. The report was well-timed, because bureaucratic chaos during the Crimean War was causing a clamour for the change. The report's conclusions were immediately implemented, and a permanent, unified and politically neutral civil service

375-464: A greater chance to pass the exams and obtain an official degree. This included the employment of a bureau of copyists who would rewrite all of the candidates' exams in order to mask their handwriting and thus prevent favoritism by graders of the exams who might otherwise recognize a candidate's handwriting. The advent of widespread printing in the Song period allowed many more examination candidates access to

450-729: A high level of government regulation. Some public services are provided on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections ) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income , physical ability or mental acuity . Examples of such services include the fire services , police , air force , paramedics and public service broadcasting . Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed , they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy , when made in

525-401: A magistrate had was proportional to status. Lictores were in charge of punishing Roman citizens. They were generally employed to make announcements in public and crowds. The scriba were civil servants working as public notaries as well as general bureaucracy. Greek cities had a similar figure, however the job was done by slaves. In the 18th century, in response to economic changes and

600-415: A merchant. This was because the mercantile class was traditionally regarded with some disdain by the scholar-official class. This class of state bureaucrats in the Song period were far less aristocratic than their Tang predecessors. The examinations were carefully structured in order to ensure that people of lesser means than what was available to candidates born into wealthy, landowning families were given

675-467: A much smaller scale in comparison to the stronger, centralized bureaucracy of the Song dynasty (960–1279). In response to the regional military rule of jiedushi and the loss of civil authority during the late Tang period and Five Dynasties (907–960), the Song emperors were eager to implement a system where civil officials would owe their social prestige to the central court and gain their salaries strictly from

750-474: A new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate in AD 605. The following Tang dynasty (618–907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations. The structure of the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian . The system reached its apogee during

825-446: A private corporation runs a natural monopoly , then the corporation is typically heavily regulated, to prevent abuse of monopoly power. Lastly, the government can buy the service on the free market. In many countries, medication is provided in this manner: the government reimburses part of the price of the medication. Also, bus traffic, electricity, healthcare and waste management are privatized in this way. One recent innovation, used in

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900-408: A profound literati and dramatist that it would not be far-fetched to regard him as China's answer to William Shakespeare. In the late 19th century, however, the system increasingly engendered internal dissatisfaction, and was criticized as not reflecting candidates' ability to govern well, and for giving undue weight to style over content and originality of thought. Indeed, long before its abandonment,

975-469: A public service ethos who wish to give something to the wider public or community through their work. The process of assessing the needs of the people of an area, and then designing and securing an appropriate public service to meet those needs, is often referred to in the UK as commissioning . The commissioned services may be delivered by organisations in the public sector, private sector or third sector : when

1050-405: A special loyalty obligation. Public service A public service or service of general (economic) interest is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community, whether provided directly by a public sector agency, via public financing available to private businesses or voluntary organisations, or provided by private businesses subject to

1125-735: A state's civil servants form its civil service or public service. The concept arose in China and modern civil service developed in Britain in the 18th century. An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization . These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction ) but are governed by internal staff regulations. All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance,

1200-452: A theologically and ceremonially correct state religion . The widespread provision of public utilities as public services in developed countries usually began in the late nineteenth century, often with the municipal development of gas and water services. Later, governments began to provide other services such as electricity and health care . In most developed countries, local or national governments continue to provide such services,

1275-633: A white paper published by the Cameron–Clegg coalition in the United Kingdom in July 2011, aimed to create a comprehensive policy framework for "good public services ". It set out the coalition's programme for reform of public services, described as a programme of "wide ambitions" expected to be implemented over a period of time, not all at once. Five principles were to underlie open public services: The journalist David Boyle conducted an independent review for

1350-636: Is obligated to act according to the law and is guided by public policy pronouncements. The Common Statute of Civil Servants is the primary legislative framework for the Civil Service in Cambodia. One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on meritocracy is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). However, the civil service examinations were practiced on

1425-906: Is usually lifelong (that is, until age about retirement). The civil service in France ( fonction publique ) is often incorrectly considered to include all government employees including employees of public corporations, such as SNCF . Public sector employment is classified into three services; State service, Local service and Hospital service. According to government statistics there were 5.5 million public sector employees in 2011. The Public Service in Germany ( Öffentlicher Dienst ) employed 4.6 million persons as of 2011 . Public servants are organized into hired salaried employees ( Arbeitnehmer ), appointed civil servants ( Beamte ), judges, and soldiers. They are employed by public bodies ( Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts ), such as counties ( Kreise ) , states ,

1500-756: The Civil Services Examination (CSE) or the Engineering Services Examination (ESE) among others, conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). Additionally, there are also State Services . The state civil servants are selected through an examination conducted by state public service commissions. State civil servants serve at the pleasure of the Governor. In Pakistan the FPSC (Federal Public Service Commission) conducts

1575-538: The Colegio de San Juan de Letran . He first got work at the Weather Bureau, married Marta Montes from Atimonan , Tayabas Province (now Quezon). The union produced three sons and two daughters. By 1916, Guinto left his job at the Weather Bureau to pursue law studies at the old Escuela de Derecho and by 1920, after completing his law studies and qualifying as a bona fide lawyer, Guinto was employed as private secretary to

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1650-514: The Commonwealth . The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act established a modern civil service in the United States, and by the turn of the 20th century almost all Western governments had implemented similar reforms... Brazil started to move away from a patronage based public service starting in the second half of the 19th century, but written tests and merit only became the norm towards the end of

1725-598: The Confucian classics . After the fall of the Han dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the nine-rank system . This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui dynasty (581–618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations and recommendation. The first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui . Emperor Yang of Sui established

1800-718: The Confucian texts whose mastery was required for passing the exams. Hong Kong and Macau have separate civil service systems: In India, civil servants are selected as per the Constitution of India . Civil servants serve at the pleasure of the President of India . The civil services of India can be classified into two types—the All India Services and the Central Civil Services (Group A and B). The recruits are university graduates selected through three phase exams such as

1875-611: The Hatch Act of 1939 , civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties. The U.S. civil service includes the competitive service and the excepted service . The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the competitive service, but the Foreign Service , the FBI , and other National Security positions are made under the excepted service. (U.S. Code Title V) As of January 2007,

1950-478: The Indian Rebellion of 1857 which came close to toppling British rule in the country. The Northcote–Trevelyan model remained essentially stable for a hundred years. This was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services (even under the stress of two world wars), and responding effectively to political change. It also had a great international influence and was adapted by members of

2025-498: The New Policies reform package. The Chinese system was often admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward. However, the Chinese imperial examination system was hardly universally admired by all Europeans who knew of it. In a debate in the unelected chamber of the UK parliament on March 13, 1854, John Browne 'pointed out [clearly with some disdain] that the only precedent for appointing civil servants by literary exams

2100-499: The Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than "preferment, patronage or purchase". It also recommended

2175-528: The Philippine Legislature . He held the post of legislator for six years until 1928. He was elected provincial governor of Tayabas in 1928 but his term was cut short when he was appointed as Commissioner of Public Safety by then American Governor-General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. In the later part of 1933, Governor-General Frank Murphy named undersecretary of the Interior Department. By 1934,

2250-470: The Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BCE) in ancient China with the institution of xiàn (prefectures) under the control of a centrally appointed prefect. Historical evidence of state provision of dispute resolution through a legal/justice system goes back at least as far as ancient Egypt. A primary public service in ancient history involved ensuring the general favor of the gods through

2325-515: The World wars of the first half of the twentieth century. In parts of Europe , central planning was implemented in the belief that it would make production more efficient. Many public services, especially electricity, fossil fuels and public transport are products of this era. Following the Second World War, many countries also began to implement universal health care and expanded education under

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2400-584: The federal government , etc. In addition to employees directly employed by the state another 1.6 million persons are employed by state owned enterprises Beamte has been a title for government employees for several centuries in German states, but became a standardized group in 1794. Soldiers other than conscripted soldiers are not Beamte but have similar rights. Judges are not Beamte but have similar rights too. Public attorneys are all Beamte, whereas most (but not all) professors are Beamte. The group of Beamte have

2475-422: The republic , and workers in government-owned corporations . Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations ( Portuguese : concurso público ). It usually consists of a written test; some posts may require physical tests (such as policemen), or oral tests (such as professors, judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The rank according to

2550-504: The 1930s, as a result from reforms introduced during Getúlio Vargas first term as the nation's President. Civil servants in Brazil ( Portuguese : servidores públicos ) are those working in the executive , legislative , and judicial branches of the Federal , state , Federal District or municipal governments, including congressmen , senators , mayors , ministers , the president of

2625-827: The Administrative Tribunal of the ILO . Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) of the United Nations , an independent expert body established by the United Nations General Assembly . Its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service. The origin of

2700-646: The Departments of Interior and Labor were merged and Guinto continued to serve as undersecretary. In 1940, Guinto was appointed Secretary of Labor in the Commonwealth government of President Manuel L. Quezon. By 1942, Guinto was appointed by Jorge B. Vargas , the then incoming chairman of the Japanese-created government structure called the Philippine Executive Commission , to assume the position of mayor of City of Greater Manila and look after

2775-550: The Government and People of China , published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only", and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic. On the other hand, John Browne, in the 1854 debate mentioned above, 'argued that elegant writing had become an end in itself, and

2850-688: The Japanese forces. A blanket amnesty was issued before the granting of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946, sparing the former Manila mayor of a war crimes trial. Guinto went into the private sector, taught in the academe and even served as Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences of the Lyceum of the Philippines University . In 1955, Guinto returned home to Quezon Province and was elected governor, only to lose re-election in 1959. Guinto died in 1962 at

2925-825: The Post Office, transport, hospital services, and the provision of baths , parks and cemeteries . A public service may sometimes have the characteristics of a public good (being non rivalrous and non excludable), but most are services which may (according to prevailing social norms ) be under-provided by the market . In most cases public services are services , i.e. they do not involve manufacturing of goods . They may be provided by local or national monopolies, especially in sectors that are natural monopolies . They may involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort or hard to measure in terms of key characteristics such as quality. They often require high levels of training and education. They may attract people with

3000-514: The Song dynasty. In theory, the Chinese civil service system provided one of the main avenues for social mobility in Chinese society, although in practice, due to the time-consuming nature of the study, the examination was generally only taken by sons of the landed gentry. The examination tested the candidate's memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms and calligraphy . It

3075-551: The UK found that private sector hiring managers do not credit government experience as much as private sector experience. Public workers tend to make less in wages when adjusting for education, although that difference is reduced when benefits and hours are included. Public servants have other intangible benefits such as increased job security and high wages. A study concluded that public services are associated with higher human need satisfaction and lower energy requirements while contemporary forms of economic growth are linked with

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3150-605: The UK's Treasury and the Cabinet Office on public demand for choice in public services which reported in 2013. The principle of choice where possible was embodied in the Choice Charter, published on 16 May 2013, where four choice principles were outlined: Between December 2012 and May 2013, "Choice Frameworks" were scheduled for publication covering NHS care, social housing , school education, early years education and adult social care . Nationalization took off following

3225-448: The UK, a civil servant is a public servant but a public servant is not necessarily a civil servant. The study of the civil service is a part of the field of public service (and in some countries there is no distinction between the two). Staff members in "non-departmental public bodies" (sometimes called " QUANGOs ") may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions. Collectively

3300-751: The age of 76 in Manila, Philippines. Leon Guinto Street (formerly Pennsylvania Street), which runs through the Ermita and Malate districts, was renamed in his honor. Public servant The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "civil service" varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom (UK), for instance, only Crown (national government) employees are referred to as "civil servants" whereas employees of local authorities (counties, cities and similar administrations) are generally referred to as "local government civil service officers", who are considered public servants but not civil servants. Thus, in

3375-602: The biggest exceptions being the U.S. and the UK , where private provision is arguably proportionally more significant. Nonetheless, such privately provided public services are often strongly regulated, for example (in the US) by Public Utility Commissions . Examples noted in a history of public services in Oxford include street-repair, cleansing, and lighting , drainage and sewage disposal, water, gas and electricity supply, police and fire services,

3450-534: The bureaucracy were based on the patronage of aristocrats ; During the Han dynasty , Emperor Wu of Han established the xiaolian system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit. This was an early form of the imperial examinations, transitioning from inheritance and patronage to merit, in which local officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of

3525-399: The central government. This ideal was not fully achieved since many scholar officials were affluent landowners and were engaged in many anonymous business affairs in an age of economic revolution in China . Nonetheless, gaining a degree through three levels of examination—prefectural exams, provincial exams, and the prestigious palace exams—was a far more desirable goal in society than becoming

3600-458: The city's administration during the Japanese occupation during World War II . Guinto's close relations with the labor sector proved useful to his administration of Greater Manila, of which a number of labor leaders served as heads of the city government departments. He held the position until the city's disestablishment in 1944. In 1945, Guinto was indicted as a war criminal for collaborating with

3675-801: The company's territories in India. "The proposal for establishing this college came, significantly, from members of the East India Company's trading post in Canton, China." Examinations for the Indian "civil service"—a term coined by the Company—were introduced in 1829. British efforts at reform were influenced by the imperial examinations system and meritocratic system of China. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou , China argued in his Desultory Notes on

3750-463: The courts, they escorted the magistrate and acted as heralds. They also helped in writing edicts and laws . It is also possible they were messengers and orderlies . The Accensi Velati were non military participants of military campaigns. They probably assisted clerks, accountants, supply officials, and aides. The y also assisted religious affairs especially the Feriae Latinae , formed

3825-643: The eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806." In that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College , near London to train and examine administrators of

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3900-638: The examination score is used for filling the vacancies. Entrance examinations are conducted by several institutions with a government mandate, such as CESPE (which belongs to the University of Brasília ) and the Cesgranrio Foundation (which is part of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro ). The labor laws and social insurance for civil servants are different from private workers; even between government branches (like different states or cities),

3975-472: The federal government workforce is employed in this region. As of 2014, there are currently 15 federal executive branch agencies and hundreds of subagencies. In the early 20th century, most cities in the US had a spoils system. Over the next few decades, the spoils system was replaced with a civil service system. U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on

4050-511: The federal government, excluding the Postal Service, employed about 1.8 million civilian workers. The federal government is the nation's single largest employer, although it employs only about 12% of all government employees, compared to 24% at the state level and 63% at the local level. Although most federal agencies are based in the Washington, D.C. region, only about 16% (or about 284,000) of

4125-532: The finance potentially available for expansion to poorer communities. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is, however, a global initiative which aims to influence the provision of public services and infrastructure for marginalized demographics. Governing bodies have long provided core public services. The tradition of keeping citizens secure through organized military defense dates to at least four thousand years ago. Maintaining order through local delegated authority originated at least as early as

4200-452: The funding and guidance of the state. There are several ways to privatize public services. A free-market corporation may be established and sold to private investors, relinquishing government control altogether. Thus it becomes a private (not public) service. Another option, used in the Nordic countries , is to establish a corporation, but keep ownership or voting power essentially in the hands of

4275-513: The government. For example, the Finnish state owned 49% of Kemira until 2007, the rest being owned by private investors. A 49% share did not make it a "government enterprise", but it meant that all other investors together would have to oppose the state's opinion in order to overturn the state's decisions in the shareholder's meeting. A regulated corporation can also acquire permits on the agreement that they fulfill certain public service duties. When

4350-555: The growth of the British Empire , the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works and the Navy Board greatly expanded. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase. By the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. "The origins of the British civil service are better known. During

4425-440: The law and insurance differ. The posts usually are ranked by titles, the most common are technician for high school literates and analyst for undergraduates. There's also higher post ranks like auditor, fiscal, chief of police, prosecutor, judge, attorney, etc. The law does not allow servants to upgrade or downgrade posts internally; they need to be selected in separate external entrance examinations. Historians have explored

4500-462: The modern meritocratic civil service can be traced back to imperial examination founded in Imperial China . The imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree. Originally appointments to

4575-537: The most secure employment, and the amount they are paid is set by national pay regulations ( Besoldungsordnungen ). Beamte are prohibited from striking . Arbeitnehmer have work contracts, whereas Beamte are appointed, employed, and removed in accordance with the Public Sector Service and Loyalty law ( öffentlich-rechtliches Dienst- und Treueverhältnis ). Most tasks can be either done by Arbeitnehmer or Beamte , however some specific tasks of official nature are supposed to be handled by Beamte since they are subject to

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4650-405: The national system, in varying degrees. The Civil Service ( Malay : Perkhidmatan Awam ) of Brunei. The role of the civil service is as the government's administrative machinery to uphold the supreme authority of His Majesty the Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam, uphold the National Philosophy – MIB, Melayu Islam Beraja, ensure the development of the country and ensure the welfare of

4725-411: The notion of the imperial system as a route to social mobility was somewhat mythical. In Tang's magnum opus, The Peony Pavilion, sc 13, Leaving Home, the male lead, Liu Mengmei, laments: "After twenty years of studies, I still have no hope of getting into office", and on this point Tang may be speaking through Liu as his alter ego. The system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of

4800-479: The opposite. Authors find that the contemporary economic system is structurally misaligned with goals of sustainable development and that to date no nation can provide decent living standards at sustainable levels of energy and resource use. They provide analysis about factors in social provisioning and assess that improving beneficial provisioning-factors and infrastructure would allow for sustainable forms of sufficient need satisfaction. Open Public Services ,

4875-473: The people as well as its traditional role as the peacekeeper, law enforcer, regulator and service providers. However, the adjudication system is separate from the civil service to maintain its independence and impartiality. The Civil Service ( Khmer : សេវាកម្មស៊ីវិល , Sevakamm Civil ) of Cambodia is the policy implementing arm of the Royal Government of Cambodia . In executing this important role, each civil servant ( Khmer : មន្រ្តីរាជការ , Montrey Reachkar )

4950-534: The pleasure of the president—a person could be fired at any time. The spoils system meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed in slow stages by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost two-thirds of the U.S. federal work force was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies, are filled by political appointees . Under

5025-578: The powerful role of civil service since the 1840s. In Canada, the civil service at the federal level is known as the Public Service of Canada , with each of the ten provincial governments as well as the three territorial governments also having their own separate civil services. The federal civil service consists of all employees of the crown . Ministers' exempt staff and members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or Canadian Armed Forces are not civil servants. There are approximately 357,000 federal civil servants (2023), and more than 350,000 employees at

5100-731: The private or third sector is involved the process of commissioning will usually be linked with a process of procurement , to determine who will provide the services, at what cost and on what terms. Commissioning is often seen as a cyclical process. Public services can be constructed, coordinated and operated in many ways or forms. They include government agencies, independent state -funded institutes, government-coordinated organizations, civil society, military agencies and volunteers. Government agencies are not profit-oriented and their employees are often motivated differently. Studies of their work have found contrasting results including both higher levels of effort and fewer hours of work. A survey in

5175-404: The provincial and territorial levels. In the United States, the federal civil service was established in 1871. The Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services." ( 5 U.S.C.   § 2101 ). In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at

5250-432: The public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. In modern developed countries , the term "public services" (or "services of general interest") often includes: In developing countries , public services tend to be much less well developed. For example, water services might only be available to the wealthy middle class . For political reasons, the service is often subsidized , which reduces

5325-429: The stultifying effect of this on the Chinese civil service had contributed in no small measure to China's failure to develop its early lead over Western civilisations': Coolican, p. 107. In 1853 the Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone , commissioned Sir Stafford Northcote and Charles Trevelyan to look into the operation and organisation of the Civil Service. Influenced by the Chinese imperial examinations,

5400-524: The then Senate President , Manuel L. Quezon . Guinto, after serving briefly as private secretary to Senate President Manuel L. Quezon , launched his political career in 1922 by running as member of the Provincial Board of the then Tayabas Province, the home province of his wife Marta Montes. By 1925, he pursued the position of representative of the 2nd district of Tayabas under the Lower House of

5475-490: Was ideally suited to literary candidates. Thus, toward the end of the Ming Dynasty, the system attracted the candidature of Tang Xianzu (1550–1616). Tang at 14 passed the imperial examination at the county level; and at 21, he did so at the provincial level; but not until he was 34 did he pass at the national level. However, he had already become a well-known poet at age 12, and among other things he went on to such distinction as

5550-584: Was introduced as Her Majesty's Civil Service . A Civil Service Commission was also set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote–Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years. The same model, the Imperial Civil Service , was implemented in British India from 1858, after the demise of the East India Company 's rule in India through

5625-470: Was that of the Chinese government'. The Roman empire (27 BC – AD 395) had several types of civil servants who fulfilled diverse functions in Roman society. They were called apparitores . Accensi were usually professional civil servants, providing assistance to the elected magistrates during their term in office. In the courts, they summoned witnesses, kept track of time, and helped keep order. Outside of

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