Misplaced Pages

#40959

119-606: Like many of the mountains of the Swabian Alps, Lemberg is a " Zeugenberg "—a "witness mountain". A stratum of limestone has generally eroded away, leaving a few more-resistant remnants, such as the Lemberg. The name is Celtic in origin. Those Celtic prefix "lem-" means something like morass or sump . Probably this name derives from the source of the Bära river, a tributary of the Danube , at

238-455: A Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa . For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa. Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture. However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that

357-457: A bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae . However, stable isotope ratios in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility. Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic , the last 540 million years of

476-617: A double-headed eagle was used. The colours red and white were also significant during this period. When the Holy Roman Empire took part in the Crusades , a war flag was flown alongside the black-gold imperial banner. This flag, known as the "Saint George Flag", was a white cross on a red background: the reverse of the St George's Cross used as the flag of England , and similar to the flag of Denmark . Red and white were also colours of

595-594: A banner). The Holy Roman Empire (800/962 – 1806, known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512) did not have a national flag, but black and gold were used as colours of the Holy Roman Emperor and featured in the imperial banner: a black eagle on a golden background. After the late 13th or early 14th century, the claws and beak of the eagle were coloured red. From the early 15th century,

714-434: A carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape. Crystals of calcite, quartz , dolomite or barite may line small cavities ( vugs ) in the rock. Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by

833-612: A central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or sometimes an oolitic limestone . Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition in strong currents. Oncoliths resemble ooids but show

952-449: A change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite. Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro "marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone. True marble is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process ( orogeny ). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and

1071-949: A composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced. Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate brachiopods , planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and coccoliths . High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms , and coralline algae . Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of molluscs , calcareous green algae , stromatoporoids , corals , and tube worms . The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water). Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around

1190-412: A considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 km (0.62 miles), burial cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce stylolites. When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating

1309-565: A direct path, served to augment the existing terrestrial telephone lines. After these were replaced by fiber optic cables, the microwave link became obsolete and the antennas were dismantled in 2005. Geographical coordinates of Lemberg tower: 48°9'3" N, 8°44'56" E On clear days the view reaches to the south as far as the Alps , whose northern edge can be seen from the Zugspitze to the Bernese Alps . To

SECTION 10

#1733093744041

1428-483: A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers. Impurities (such as clay , sand, organic remains, iron oxide , and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces. The makeup of

1547-621: A few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate. Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic . Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate

1666-455: A few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over 100 km (60 miles) into sediments beneath the continental shelf. As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of

1785-591: A flag with three equal horizontal bands of red, black, and red, with gold trim and a golden oak branch across the black band, following the colours of the uniforms of the Free Corps. The famous gymnast and student union ( Burschenschaften ) founder Friedrich Ludwig Jahn proposed a black-red-gold banner for the Burschen. Some members interpreted the colours as a rebirth of the Imperial black-yellow colours embellished with

1904-532: A layout for the vertical version of the government flag was established, that coincidentally matched the pattern of the "conventional" black-red-gold flag of the Principality of Reuss-Gera ( Fürstentum Reuß-Gera ) from 1806 to 1918: the Bundesschild is displayed in the centre of the flag, overlapping with up to one fifth of the black and gold bands. When hung like a banner or draped, the black band should be on

2023-435: A limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them. Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone , which

2142-466: A lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times. This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading , which removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas". Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms . Such environments form only about 5% of

2261-525: A lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of marls . The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds. Freshwater limestone is typically micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates. Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments . Calcite

2380-523: A mechanism for dolomitization, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth". Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping). Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock

2499-570: A number of flag-flying days in Germany. Following federal decree on 22 March 2005, the flag must be flown from public buildings on the following dates. Only 1 May and 3 October are public holidays. Election days for the Bundestag and the European Parliament are also flag days in some states, in addition to other state-specific flag days. The public display of flags to mark other events, such as

SECTION 20

#1733093744041

2618-448: A plausible source of mud. Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of

2737-449: A radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment. Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes. Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by endolithic (boring) algae or other microorganisms or through breakdown of mollusc shells. They are difficult to see in

2856-512: A symbol of German democracy, but also of resistance to political extremism. This was summarised by the organisation's first chairman, Otto Hörsing , who described their task as a "struggle against the swastika and the Soviet star ". In the face of the increasingly violent conflicts between the communists and Nazis, the growing polarisation of the German population and a multitude of other factors, mainly

2975-593: A wooden tower on the Lemberg or its neighbour, the Oberhohenberg (1,011 m). The historical significance and the comfortable ascent argued in favor of the Oberhohenberg, however finally—particularly because of status as the highest mountain of the Swabian Alps—the decision was made to build on the Lemberg. In 1894 the first terrain inspection was made by one engineer and two master craftsmen. However construction

3094-707: Is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany : black , red , and gold ( German : Schwarz-Rot-Gold ). The flag was first sighted in 1848 in the German Confederation . The flag was also used by the German Empire from 1848 to 1849 . It was officially adopted as the national flag of the German Reich (during the period of the Weimar Republic ) from 1919 to 1933, and has been in use since its reintroduction in

3213-560: Is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are deposited close to shore. The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which

3332-399: Is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite ( dolomitic limestone ), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of magnesium . Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms , though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much dolomite

3451-482: Is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of magnesium . Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium. Most limestone

3570-402: Is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years. However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite. The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within

3689-474: Is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity current . The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock. Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length

Lemberg (Swabian Jura) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3808-416: Is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm . Although relatively soft, with

3927-406: Is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of CaCO 3 . Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for

4046-420: Is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) in the water. This is summarized in the reaction: Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO 2 and precipitate CaCO 3 . Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO 3 , by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater. Near-surface water of

4165-545: Is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths , concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 mm (0.039 to 0.394 inches) in diameter found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments. Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation. Silicification takes place through

4284-503: Is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera . These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are ooids , peloids , and limeclasts ( intraclasts and extraclasts  [ ca ] ). Skeletal grains have

4403-460: Is described as coquinite . Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments. Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes. The solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 )

4522-617: Is described as micrite . In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater, be secreted by algae, or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment. This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar , with grains from 5 to 15 μm (0.20 to 0.59 mils) in diameter. Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils), that are described as sparry calcite or sparite . Sparite

4641-462: Is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20 μm (0.79 mils) and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes. Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement

4760-560: Is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites. Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones. Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from

4879-473: Is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals ) making up less than 5% to 10% of the composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms , or radiolarians ). Fossils are also common in limestone. Limestone

Lemberg (Swabian Jura) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4998-472: Is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the lysocline , which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of 4,000 to 7,000 m (13,000 to 23,000 feet). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and

5117-514: Is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone. Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become karst landscapes. Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime used for cement (an essential component of concrete ), as aggregate for

5236-581: Is tolerated, and such flags are sometimes seen at international sporting events. In addition to the normal horizontal format, many public buildings in Germany use vertical flags . Most town halls fly their town flag together with the national flag (and usually the flag of the state they are in and the flag of the European Union ) in this way; many town flags in Germany exist only in vertical form. The proportions of these vertical flags are not specified. In 1996,

5355-791: The Reichskriegsflagge (war flag of the Reich), which has been revived in the present for similar use. Many nationalist political parties during the Weimar period—such as the German National People's Party (see poster) and the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party)—used the imperial colours, a practice that has continued today with the National Democratic Party of Germany . On 24 February 1924,

5474-457: The Dienstflagge der Bundesbehörden (state flag of the federal authorities) or Bundesdienstflagge for short. It was introduced in 1950. It is the civil flag defaced with the Bundesschild ("Federal Shield"), which overlaps with up to one fifth of the black and gold bands. The Bundesschild is a variant of the coat of arms of Germany , whose main differences are the illustration of

5593-603: The Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. Since the mid-19th century, Germany has two competing traditions of national colours, black-red-gold and black-white-red. Black-red-gold were the colours of the 1848 Revolutions , the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933 and the Federal Republic (since 1949). They were also adopted by the German Democratic Republic (1949–1990). The colours black-white-red appeared for

5712-449: The German Confederation was definitely restored under Austrian-Prussian leadership. The tricolour remained official but was no longer used before 1863 at a conference of the German governments. Afterwards, the most pressing issue was whether or not to include Austria in any future German nation, as Austria's status as a multi-ethnic empire complicated the dream of a united Greater Germany—the grossdeutsch solution. Alternatively, there

5831-474: The Hanseatic League (13th–17th century). Hanseatic trading ships were identifiable by their red-white pennants, and most Hanseatic cities adopted red and white as their city colours (see Hanseatic flags ). Red and white still feature as the colours of many former Hanseatic cities such as Hamburg or Bremen . When Heinrich XI, Prince Reuss of Greiz was appointed by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor to rule

5950-645: The Imperial elector state that was a predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia. The absence of gold from the flag also made it clear that this German state did not include the "black and gold" monarchy of Austria. In the Franco-Prussian War , the remaining southern German states allied with the North German Confederation, leading to the unification of Germany . A new constitution of 1871 gave the federal state

6069-526: The colours of Prussia (black and white) with the Hanseatic colours (red and white). In the following year, the constitution of the North German Confederation was enacted, where a horizontal black-white-red tricolour was declared to be both the civil and war ensign. King Wilhelm I of Prussia was satisfied with the colour choice: the red and white were also taken to represent the Margraviate of Brandenburg ,

SECTION 50

#1733093744041

6188-474: The lancers in the unit were red and black. As the members of this unit came from all over Germany and included a modest but well known number of university students and academics, the Lützow Free Corps and their colours gained considerable exposure among the German people. The 1815–16 Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the German Confederation , a loose union of all remaining German states after

6307-515: The 19th century and the new democratic republic, the old black-red-gold tricolour was designated as the national German flag in the Weimar Constitution in 1919. Only the tiny German principalities of Reuss-Greiz – where the use and layout of the schwarz-rot-gold design had originated some 140 years earlier, Reuss-Gera , Waldeck-Pyrmont and its republican successor had upheld the 1778-established tradition, and had always continued to use

6426-518: The Bundestag call for general elections for a German parliament, the national assembly. This Frankfurt Parliament declared the black-red-gold as the official colours of Germany and passed a law stating its civil ensign was the black-red-yellow tricolour. Also, a naval war ensign used these colours. In May 1849, the larger states actively fought the revolution and the Frankfurt parliament. In late 1850,

6545-744: The Confederation states met in Wartburg in Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (in modern Thuringia ), calling for a free and unified German nation. The gold-red-black flag of the Jena Urburschenschaft featured prominently at this Wartburg festival . Therefore, the colours black, red, and gold eventually became symbolic of this desire for a unified German state. The Ministerial Council of the German Confederation, in its determination to maintain

6664-600: The Dissolution of the Jena Students' League") quoted by Johannes Brahms in his Academic Festival Overture . Another claim goes back to the uniforms (mainly black with red facings and gold buttons) of the Lützow Free Corps , which were mostly worn by university students and were formed during the struggle against the occupying forces of Napoleon. Whatever the true explanation, those colours soon came to be regarded as

6783-496: The Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the Precambrian , prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean. Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock . During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example, aragonite

6902-522: The German war flag on land. In 1956, the Dienstflagge der Seestreitkräfte der Bundeswehr (Flag of the German Navy ) was introduced: the government flag ending in swallowtail . This naval flag is also used as a navy jack . Article 22 of the German constitution, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany , states: The federal flag shall be black, red and gold. Following specifications set by

7021-557: The German colours of black , red , and or (gold) in their flag. As a civil ensign, the black-white-red tricolour was retained, albeit with the new tricolour in the top left corner. This change was not welcomed by many people in Germany, who saw this new flag as a symbol of humiliation following Germany's defeat in the First World War. In the Reichswehr , the old colours continued to be used in various forms. Many conservatives wanted

7140-518: The German penal code, the consequences are a fine or imprisonment up to three years. The German association with the colours black , red , and gold surfaced in the radical 1840s, when the black-red-gold flag was used to symbolise the movement against the Conservative Order , which was established in Europe after Napoleon's defeat. There are many theories in circulation regarding the origins of

7259-703: The Napoleonic Wars. The Confederation was created as a replacement for the now-extinct Holy Roman Empire, with Francis I of Austria —the last Holy Roman Emperor—as its president. The confederation did not have a flag of its own, although the black-red-gold tricolour is sometimes mistakenly attributed to it. Upon returning from the war, veterans of the Lützow Free Corps founded the Urburschenschaft fraternity in Jena in June 1815. The Jena Urburschenschaft eventually adopted

SECTION 60

#1733093744041

7378-581: The Wartburg Festival, and flags in these colours were flown en masse at the Hambach Festival. While contemporary illustrations showed prominent use of a gold-red-black tricolour (an upside-down version of the modern German flag), surviving flags from the event were in black-red-gold. Such an example is the Ur-Fahne , the flag flown from Hambach Castle during the festival: a black-red-gold tricolour where

7497-531: The West German government in 1950, the flag displays three bars of equal width and has a width–length ratio of 3:5; the tricolour used during the Weimar Republic had a ratio of 2:3. At the time of the adoption of the flag there were no exact colour specifications other than "Black-Red-Gold ". However on 2 June 1999, the federal cabinet introduced a corporate design for the German government which defined

7616-493: The autumn and winter than in the spring and summer. The Lemberg can be ascended on designated hiking trails. The Schwäbische Alb-Nordrand-Weg ("Swabian Alps northern edge way"), Hauptwanderweg 1 of the Swabian Alpine Club ( Schwäbischen Albverein ), crosses the summit. From the nearest parking lot, the summit can be attained in about three-quarters of an hour, gaining about 180 m in elevation. From Wilflingen ,

7735-434: The base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paint, as a soil conditioner , and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens . Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum reservoirs . Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3 ). Dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ,

7854-657: The beds. This may include the formation of vugs , which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone. Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding. The process of dolomitization remains an area of active research, but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments ( evaporative reflux ) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments ( Dorag dolomitization ). However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as

7973-573: The black-red-and-gold colours of the defunct secret society Vandalia . Since the students who served in the Lützow Free Corps came from various German states, the idea of a unified German state began to gain momentum within the Urburschenschaft and similar Burschenschaft that were subsequently formed throughout the Confederation. On 18 October 1817, the fourth anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig , hundreds of fraternity members and academics from across

8092-683: The blue-white-red flag of France and the Imperial Standard of its protector, Napoleon . During the Napoleonic Wars , the German struggle against the occupying French forces was significantly symbolised by the colours of black, red, and gold, which became popular after their use in the uniforms of the Lützow Free Corps , a volunteer unit of the Prussian Army . This unit had uniforms in black with red facings and gold buttons. The colour choice had pragmatic origins, even though black-red-gold were

8211-528: The bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations. The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa . Flag of Germany The national flag of Germany ( German : Flagge Deutschlands )

8330-478: The colour scheme used in the 1848 flag. It has been proposed that the colours were those of the Jena Students' League ( Jenaer Burschenschaft ), one of the radically minded Burschenschaften banned by Metternich in the Carlsbad Decrees . The colours are mentioned in their canonical order in the seventh verse of August Daniel von Binzer 's student song Zur Auflösung der Jenaer Burschenschaft ("On

8449-425: The construction of the tower. Good weather favoured the work, so that on 17 June 1899 the building was already finished. The tower ascent has over 152 stairway steps, on twelve open floors. The tower consists of 23 tons of iron. The cost estimate of 10,000 Marks was not exceeded. The observation platform of Lemberg Tower is 30 metres above ground. With the flag pole on its top the tower is 34 metres tall. Since then,

8568-462: The creation of separate government and military flags in later years, the plain tricolour is now used as the German civil flag and civil ensign . This flag is also used by non-federal authorities to show their connection to the federal government, e.g. the authorities of the German states use the German national flag together with their own flag . The government flag of Germany is officially known as

8687-462: The depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of

8806-469: The deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as tufa . Secondary calcite deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters ( groundwater ) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces speleothems , such as stalagmites and stalactites . Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of coral , shells , or other fossil debris. When better consolidated, it

8925-513: The drastic economic sinking, extreme hyperinflation and corruption of the republic, the Weimar Republic collapsed in 1933 with the Nazi seizure of power ( Machtergreifung ) and the appointment of Adolf Hitler as German chancellor . After Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor on 30 January 1933 the black-red-gold flag was banned; a ruling on 12 March established two legal flags: the reintroduced black-white-red imperial tricolour national flag and

9044-461: The eagle and the shape of the shield: the Bundesschild is rounded at the base, whereas the standard coat of arms is pointed. The government flag may only be used by federal government authorities and its use by others is an offence, punishable with a fine. However, public use of flags similar to the Bundesdienstflagge (e.g. using the actual coat of arms instead of the Bundesschild )

9163-406: The earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO 3 by a factor of more than six. The failure of CaCO 3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in

9282-538: The election of the president or the death of a prominent politician (whereupon flags would be at half-staff), can be declared at the discretion of the Federal Ministry of the Interior . When flags are required to be flown at half-staff, vertical flags are not lowered. A black mourning ribbon is instead attached, either atop the staff (if hung from a pole) or to each end of the flag's supporting cross-beams (if flown like

9401-399: The first refers to the grains and the second to the cement. For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It focuses on

9520-521: The first time in 1867 in the constitution of the North German Confederation . This nation state for Prussia and other north and central German states was expanded to the south German states in 1870–71, under the name German Empire . It kept these colours until the revolution of 1918–19. Thereafter, black-white-red became a symbol of the political right. The Nazis ( National Socialist German Worker's Party ) re-established these colours along with

9639-403: The foot of the mountain. From the 8th to 5th centuries B.C. there was a Hallstatt settlement on the Lemberg. Even today walls and ditches of a fortification can be detected on the summit. In the east and the west the summit plateau was terraced. Further remains of Celtic activity are also on the neighboring mountains, and the whole Heuberg region. By 1890 there were plans for the building of

9758-572: The formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone. Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone. Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks . Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names;

9877-420: The former colours used by the Holy Roman Empire. At the time, the colours represented: Out of the blackness (black) of servitude through bloody (red) battles to the golden (gold) light of freedom . Members of the corps were required to supply their own clothing: in order to present a uniform appearance it was easiest to dye all clothes black. Gold-coloured buttons were widely available, and pennons used by

9996-429: The geologic record are called bioherms . Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available accommodation space in the shelf or platform. Deposition

10115-434: The last 540 million years. Limestone often contains fossils which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the evolution of life. About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone. The remaining carbonate rock is mostly dolomite , a closely related rock, which contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . Magnesian limestone

10234-547: The last Holy Roman Emperor, with Napoleon forcing the empire's dissolution in 1806. After this point, these colours continued to be used as the flag of Austria until 1918. With the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, many of its dukes and princes joined the Confederation of the Rhine , a confederation of Napoleonic client states. These states preferred to use their own flags. The confederation had no flag of its own; instead it used

10353-480: The left, as illustrated. When flown from a vertical flagpole, the black band must face the staff. The only type of vertical flag that can be flown under the Federal Government Decree is a banner. Flags in vertical format, vertical flags with outrigger and hanging flags are not permitted. Since the German armed forces ( Bundeswehr ) are a federal authority, the Bundesdienstflagge is also used as

10472-687: The modern German flag's 3:5 figure. In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared the First French Empire . In response to this, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty declared his personal domain to be the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria. Taking the colours of the banner of the Holy Roman Emperor, the flag of the Austrian Empire was black and gold. Francis II was

10591-490: The national colours of Germany during that brief period. Especially after their reintroduction during the Weimar period , they became synonymous with liberalism in general. (The colours also appear in the mediaeval Reichsadler .) The German national flag or Bundesflagge (English: Federal flag ), containing only the black-red-gold tricolour, was introduced as part of the (West) German constitution in 1949. Following

10710-508: The national flag of the Republic of Upper Volta , adopted upon the country's independence in 1958 and used until 1984, when the nation was overthrown and re-established as Burkina Faso . Following the declaration of the German republic in 1918 and the ensuing revolutionary period , the so-called Weimar Republic was founded in August 1919. To form a continuity between the anti-autocratic movement of

10829-598: The new confederation was first raised by the shipping sector and its desire to have an internationally recognisable identity. Virtually all international shipping that belonged to the confederation originated from either Prussia or the three Hanseatic city-states of Bremen , Hamburg , and Lübeck . Based on this, Adolf Soetbeer , secretary of the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, suggested in the Bremer Handelsblatt on 22 September 1866 that any planned flag should combine

10948-508: The new name of German Empire and the Prussian king the title of Emperor. The German Empire retained black, white, and red as its national colours. An ordinance of 1892 dealt with the official use of the colours. The black-white-red tricolour remained the flag of Germany until the end of the German Empire in 1918, in the final days of World War I . A visually near-identical flag was used as

11067-410: The ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in

11186-520: The old colours to return, while monarchists and the far right were far more vocal with their objections, referring to the new flag with various derogatory names ( see Colour above ). As a compromise, the old black-white-red flag was reintroduced in 1922 to represent German diplomatic missions abroad. The symbols of Imperial Germany became symbols of monarchist and nationalist protest and were often used by monarchist and nationalist organisations (e.g. Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten ). This included

11305-509: The organisation Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was founded in Magdeburg by the member parties of the Weimar Coalition ( Centre , DDP , SPD ) and the trade unions . This organisation was formed to protect the fragile democracy of the Weimar Republic, which was under constant pressure by both the far right and far left. Through this organisation, the black-red-gold flag became not only

11424-428: The party's own swastika flag in 1933. After World War II, black-white-red was still used by some conservative groups or by groups of the far right , as it is not forbidden, unlike specific Nazi symbols such as the aforementioned swastika. Black-red-gold is the official flag of the Federal Republic of Germany. As an official symbol of the constitutional order, it is protected against defamation . According to §90a of

11543-426: The reaction: Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert. Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds . Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just

11662-653: The realisation of the Lesser German solution a few years later. Following the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussia formed its unofficial successor, the North German Confederation , in 1866 with the signing of the Confederation Treaty in August 1866 and then the ratification of the Constitution of 1867 . This national state consisted of Prussia, the largest member state, and 21 other north German states. The question regarding what flag should be adopted by

11781-562: The red band contains the inscription Deutschlands Wiedergeburt (Germany's rebirth). This flag is now on permanent display at the castle. In the Springtime of the Peoples during the Revolutions of 1848 , revolutionaries took to the streets, many flying the tricolour. The Confederation's Bundestag, alarmed by the events, hasted to adopt the tricolour (9 March 1848). Liberals took power and made

11900-528: The red of liberty or the blood of war. More radical students exclaimed that the colours stood for the black night of slavery, the bloody struggle for liberty, and the golden dawn of freedom. In a memoir, Anton Probsthan of Mecklenburg, who served in the Lützow Free Corps, claimed his relative Fraulein Nitschke of Jena presented the Burschenschaft with a flag at the time of its foundation, and for this purpose chose

12019-482: The relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains. Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition. Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs , which when they appear in

12138-417: The restaurant is open. The first shelter hut was inaugurated on 21 June 1901. It had an area of 6 × 3.5 m and was a log cabin construction made from round timbers on a concrete foundation. The construction cost amounted to 800 marks. Limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate CaCO 3 ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime . It

12257-460: The rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample. A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme. Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly waterfalls , cascades and hot springs . Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When

12376-554: The same derogatory terms as previously used by the monarchists. On 24 December 1951, the Federal Court of Justice ( Bundesgerichtshof ) stated that the usage of "black–red–yellow" and the like had "through years of Nazi agitation, attained the significance of a malicious slander against the democratic symbols of the state" and was now an offence. As summarised by heraldist Arnold Rabbow in 1968, "the German colours are black–red–yellow but they are called black–red–gold." There are

12495-479: The sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%. Pressure solution produces distinctive stylolites , irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of

12614-662: The sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains ( Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates. In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved. Limestones also form in freshwater environments. These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have

12733-470: The specifications of the official colours as: The flag is blazoned in English as, "Tierced in fess sable, gules and or." Vexillology rarely distinguishes between gold and yellow; in heraldry , they are both Or . For the German flag, such a distinction is made: the colour used in the flag is called gold, not yellow. When the black–red–gold tricolour was adopted by the Weimar Republic as its flag, it

12852-530: The status quo, enacted the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 that banned all student organisations, officially putting an end to the Burschenschaften . In May 1832, around 30,000 people demonstrated at the Hambach Festival for freedom, unity, and civil rights. The colours black, red, and gold had become a well established symbol for the liberal, democratic and republican movement within the German states since

12971-413: The summit can be attained in approximately one and a half hours, climbing about 400 m. The trail crosses fields before entering the forest. The final climb of the trail is narrow and steep, gaining about 130 m. The Albverein maintains a shelter hut on the summit of the Lemberg. The hut has a small restaurant with no fixed opening days, however a German flag is flown from the tower on days when

13090-527: The then-new Principality of Reuss-Greiz on 12 May 1778, the flag adopted by the Fürstentum Reuß-Greiz was the first-ever appearance of the black-red-gold tricolour in its modern arrangement in any sovereign state within what today comprises Germany – the Reuss elder line that ruled the principality used a flag whose proportions were close to a "nearly square"-shape 4:5 hoist/fly ratio, instead of

13209-455: The tower has undergone refurbishments about every 25 years. Particularly after the First World War, during which (as also in World War II) the tower had no military importance, one played with the idea to demolish the tower in order to save the money for renovation. The suggestion did not find however sufficient proponents. In 1973 and 1999 the tower was closed for longer periods, during which it

13328-533: The water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate. Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as lamination , are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms ( bioturbation ). Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes , which lack the burrowing organisms. Limestones also show distinctive features such as geopetal structures , which form when curved shells settle to

13447-553: The water. Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO 3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity. Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms . The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research. Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length. Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus , making this

13566-728: The west lies the Black Forest , whose highest points are to be recognized: Feldberg in the southwest and Hornisgrinde in the northwest. At closer hand, the northwestern escarpment of the Swabian Alps (the Albtrauf ) up to the Hohenzollern castle is to be seen, in the north the upper Neckar valley, the Schönbuch natural park, and in very good conditions even the Stuttgart TV tower , about 90 km away. Days with good viewing are more frequent in

13685-532: Was attacked by conservatives , monarchists , and the far right , who referred to the colours with spiteful nicknames such as Schwarz–Rot–Gelb (black–red–yellow) or even Schwarz–Rot–Senf (black–red–mustard). When the Nazis came to power in 1933, the black–white–red colours of pre-1918 Imperial Germany were swiftly reintroduced, and their propaganda machine continued to discredit the Schwarz–Rot–Gold , using

13804-507: Was delayed, in particular because of scarce funds. In 1897 the original plans were dropped; a discussion over the building of a tower from stone or iron began. Since the cost of a stone tower was estimated at 24,000 marks , a substantially cheaper building of iron was chosen. A company from Freiburg was assigned. The funds came predominantly from donations. The foundations were laid in Easter week, 1899. On Whit Monday , twelve workers began with

13923-416: Was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud. Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment. Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when

14042-631: Was refurbished by volunteer craftsmen from Gosheim. In the middle of the 1980s the former telecommunication office of Rottweil installed two directional antennas on the Lemberg Tower for the realization of a passive repeater microwave link between the communications building in Rottweil and the trunk exchange, situated on the Bahnhofstraße in Gosheim. This microwave link, which would not have been possible on

14161-567: Was the kleindeutsch (Lesser German) solution for a Germany that encompassed only German lands and excluded Austria. The Prussian–Austrian duality within the Confederation eventually led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. During the war, the southern states allied with Austria adopted the black-red-gold tricolour as their flag, and the 8th German Army Corps also wore black-red-gold armbands. The Kingdom of Prussia and its predominately north German allies defeated Austria and made way for

#40959