Misplaced Pages

#841158

145-413: Born on December 25, 1961, to Richard and Betty Graham, the story of the life of Lawrence Otis Graham began rooted in the segregated Jim Crow era of the south, where his Memphis, Tennessee -born parents were raised and his grandparents owned and operated a trucking company. At five-years-old, Larry's parents engaged a bold barrier-breaking mission purposed to find and acquire a residential family home in

290-491: A New York Times article about Louisiana requiring segregated railroad cars. The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow" has often been attributed to " Jump Jim Crow ", a song-and-dance caricature of black people performed by white actor Thomas D. Rice in blackface , first performed in 1828. As a result of Rice's fame, Jim Crow had become by 1838 a pejorative expression meaning "Negro". When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation directed against African Americans at

435-417: A Washington Bee editorial wondered if the "reunion" of 1913 was a reunion of those who fought for "the extinction of slavery" or a reunion of those who fought to "perpetuate slavery and who are now employing every artifice and argument known to deceit" to present emancipation as a failed venture. Historian David W. Blight observed that the "Peace Jubilee" at which Wilson presided at Gettysburg in 1913 "was

580-776: A BFA program in dance, in conjunction with the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater ; as well as cross-registration opportunities with the Juilliard School for advanced music students. Master's and doctoral degrees are offered through the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , the School of Law , the Graduate School of Education, the Graduate School of Social Service , the Gabelli School of Business, and

725-671: A White House Counsel , a vice chief of staff of the U.S. Army , a U.S. Postmaster General , a U.S. Attorney General , a President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and the first female vice presidential candidate of a major political party in the United States. Fordham was founded as St. John's College in 1841 by the Irish-born coadjutor bishop (later archbishop ) of the Diocese of New York, John Hughes . This makes it

870-582: A football team that boasted a win in the Sugar Bowl , two Pro Football Hall of Famers , two All-Americans , two Canadian Football League All-Stars, and numerous NFL players; the Rams also participated in history's first televised college football game in 1939 and history's first televised college basketball game in 1940. Fordham's baseball team played the first collegiate baseball game under modern rules in 1859, has fielded 56 major league players, and holds

1015-486: A lay board of trustees . While governed independently of the church since 1969, every president of Fordham University between 1846 and 2022 was a Jesuit priest, and the curriculum remains influenced by Jesuit educational principles. Fordham enrolls approximately 15,300 students from more than 65 countries, and is composed of ten constituent colleges, four of which are undergraduate and six of which are postgraduate , across three campuses in southern New York State :

1160-588: A Catholic church on Fifth Avenue in midtown Manhattan. "He took his wedding guests by limousine to a reception where the band played Gershwin and Cole Porter," Malcolm Gladwell wrote of the Graham wedding. "And when some of his black friends asked him (Lawrence Otis Graham) when the black music was starting he smiled and told them: "This is it." They lived in Manhattan and in Chappaqua, New York , and had three children. He

1305-528: A Jim Crow reunion, and white supremacy might be said to have been the silent, invisible master of ceremonies". In Texas , several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s. Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms. The exclusion of African Americans also found support in the Republican lily-white movement . The Civil Rights Act of 1875 , introduced by Charles Sumner and Benjamin F. Butler , stipulated

1450-565: A basis of education. Undergraduate students are expected to have finished most of the core requirements as a sophomore ; a wide variety of courses can be applied to satisfy the requirements. Upon the completion of the Core Curriculum, students choose from approximately 50 major courses of study, in which they will receive their degree. One option is the "personalized interdisciplinary major", which allows students to create their own course of study across various disciplines. In addition to

1595-671: A certificate instead of a degree. In 1855, the first student stage production, Henry IV , was presented by the St. John's Dramatic Society. The seminary was closed in 1859. The Civil War was a significant time for the college; among its alumni were four generals, six colonels (including Shaw ), and five captains serving in the Union Army ; twelve men from Fordham also served in the Confederate Army . Three Jesuits from St. John's served as army chaplains. Lincoln's assassination deeply affected

SECTION 10

#1733085431842

1740-467: A combination of poll taxes , literacy and comprehension tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements. Grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate white people to vote but gave no relief to most black people. Voter turnout dropped dramatically through the South as a result of these measures. In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised

1885-491: A community of scholars for justice, offers a Great Books curriculum with seminar-style classes and a senior research thesis in each student's major. Most honors students are inducted into the programs upon admission to the university, though some are invited at the end of their first year. Each program has a designated study space for its members, including Alpha House for the Fordham College Honors Program and

2030-478: A concurring opinion in Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co 323 192 (1944) issued that day). Murphy used the word in five separate opinions, but after he left the court, "racism" was not used again in an opinion for two decades. It next appeared in the landmark decision of Loving v. Virginia , 388 U.S. 1 (1967). Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout

2175-583: A contributing editor), Glamour , and U.S. News & World Report . His book Our Kind of People: Inside America’s Black Upper Class ( HarperCollins ) was a New York Times , Los Angeles Times and Essence Magazine bestseller, as well as a selection of the Book of the Month Club . A television series based on the book began airing on the Fox network in the fall of 2021. Graham's book The Senator and The Socialite:

2320-518: A corporate lawyer in Manhattan. Lawrence Otis Graham was a corporate lawyer at Weil, Gotshal & Manges and a real estate attorney at Cuddy & Feder as well as a New York Times bestselling author of 14 non-fiction books on the subject of politics, education, race, and class in America. His work has appeared in such publications as The New York Times , Reader's Digest (where he served as

2465-514: A distribution of 17 courses in nine disciplines: English , mathematical/computational reasoning, social science , philosophy and ethics, history, fine arts , religious studies , natural science , and modern or Classical languages. Based on the curriculum established by the Society of Jesus in the sixteenth century, the Core is shared by Jesuit schools all over the world and emphasizes the liberal arts as

2610-588: A full academic year and vary in focus from cultural and language immersion to internship and service learning. Some of the programs are organized by Fordham itself, such as those in London, United Kingdom; Granada, Spain; and Pretoria, South Africa; while others are operated by partner institutions like Georgetown University , the University of Oxford , and the Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE). In addition to

2755-537: A full and noble part in the great adventure ahead of us. We can and we must make the atomic age an age of peace for the glory of God and the welfare of mankind." During his visit, Truman also performed the first ringing of the Fordham "victory bell," originally the ship's bell of the Japanese aircraft carrier Junyo , which was presented to the university by Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz . The bell currently stands outside

2900-476: A guarantee that everyone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment in public accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of recreation. This Act had little effect in practice. An 1883 Supreme Court decision ruled that the act was unconstitutional in some respects, saying Congress was not afforded control over private persons or corporations. With white southern Democrats forming

3045-567: A huge march on Washington in August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators in front of the Lincoln Memorial , at the time the largest political assembly in the nation's history. The Kennedy administration now gave full-fledged support to the civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen blocked any legislation. After Kennedy was assassinated, President Lyndon B. Johnson called for immediate passage of Kennedy civil rights legislation as

SECTION 20

#1733085431842

3190-499: A memorial to the martyred president. Johnson formed a coalition with Northern Republicans that led to passage in the House, and with the help of Republican Senate leader Everett Dirksen with passage in the Senate early in 1964. For the first time in history, the southern filibuster was broken and the Senate finally passed its version on June 19 by vote of 73 to 27. The Civil Rights Act of 1964

3335-661: A political commentator, providing Democratic Party perspectives on News 12 in Westchester. He was chairman of the Westchester County Police Board and has served on the boards of Red Cross of Westchester, the Boy Scouts of America , Princeton Center for Leadership Training, Jack & Jill Foundation , and Council on Economic Priorities . Graham was also a trustee of SUNY Purchase College Foundation , University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine ,

3480-420: A reclassification by Barron's Profiles of American Colleges to "Most Competitive" after being "Highly Competitive+" in its 2017 edition, and reported 74% of enrolled freshmen as ranking in the top 20% of their high school class. In 2016, the university accepted approximately 43% of all applicants across both its undergraduate and graduate programs. For the undergraduate class of 2019, Fordham accepted 20,366 of

3625-530: A segregated culture had become common. In the Jim Crow context, the presidential election of 1912 was steeply slanted against the interests of African Americans. Most black Americans still lived in the South, where they had been effectively disfranchised, so they could not vote at all. While poll taxes and literacy requirements banned many poor or illiterate people from voting, these stipulations frequently had loopholes that exempted European Americans from meeting

3770-451: A sit-in on the main road leading to Rose Hill in response to an announcement that President Richard Nixon would be speaking on campus. As a result of the sit-in, Nixon was forced to cancel his plans to speak. A year later, students stormed the main administration building, occupying it for several weeks, and set fire to the Rose Hill faculty lounge. It was during this period of activism that

3915-707: A solid voting bloc in Congress, due to having outsize power from keeping seats apportioned for the total population in the South (although hundreds of thousands had been disenfranchised), Congress did not pass another civil rights law until 1957. In 1887, Rev. W. H. Heard lodged a complaint with the Interstate Commerce Commission against the Georgia Railroad company for discrimination, citing its provision of different cars for white and black/colored passengers. The company successfully appealed for relief on

4060-717: A then-mostly Caucasian-filled suburban Westchester County New York City neighborhood. "We were the only black family in our all-white upper middle-class White Plains neighborhood in the 1960s and 1970s." Those were the grounds that influenced Lawrence Otis Graham's lifetime efforts dedicated to the pursuit of racial equality and justice. While his father employed in New York in the field of real estate management, Graham and his older brother were raised in Mount Vernon, New York , and later nearby White Plains, New York . There, Graham attended White Plains High School , where he wrote for

4205-503: A third term. The president was cheered by crowds lining the Grand Concourse as he rode to campus, but received a "more measured welcome" from university president Robert Gannon, who was known for his "anti-Roosevelt views." However, in his welcoming remarks, Gannon respectfully referred to Roosevelt as "a man whose imprint is forever fixed on our national history." The second visit was by president Harry S. Truman on May 11, 1946, on

4350-568: A three-year Bachelor of Science degree was created. In 1897, academic regalia for students at commencement was first adopted. On June 21, 1904, the Regents of the University of the State of New York consented to allow the board of trustees to authorize the opening of a law school and a medical school. St. John's College officially became Fordham University on March 7, 1907. The name Fordham refers to

4495-475: A whole. Over time, pushback and open defiance of the oppressive existing laws grew, until it reached a boiling point in the aggressive, large-scale activism of the 1950s civil rights movement. The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group that became independent of the NAACP) – and its lawyer, Thurgood Marshall – brought the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , 347 U.S. 483 (1954) before

Lawrence Otis Graham - Misplaced Pages Continue

4640-466: Is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". The Fordham University Library System contains over 2.5 million volumes and 3.1 million microforms, subscribes to 16,000 periodicals including electronic access, and has 19,300 audiovisual materials. It is a depository for 363,227 United States Government documents. In addition, the university's Interlibrary Loan office provides students and faculty with virtually unlimited access to

4785-418: Is at the Rose Hill campus and contains more than 200 artifacts from Classical antiquity , including: sculptures , mosaics , ceramics and pottery , coins , and inscriptions , among other items. A gift from alumnus William D. Walsh, it is the largest collection of its kind at any college or university in the New York metropolitan area. In addition, the university maintains an extensive art collection, which

4930-520: Is housed in exhibition spaces at the Rose Hill and Lincoln Center campuses and in galleries around New York City. Finally, the university possesses a sizable collection of rare books, manuscripts, and other print media, which is housed in the O'Hare Special Collections Room at the Walsh Library. Other research facilities include the Louis Calder Center , a 114-acre biological field station and

5075-491: Is just to the west of the Rose Hill campus. In 1908, Fordham University Press was established. In 1912, the university opened the College of Pharmacy, which offered a three-year program in pharmacy , not requiring its students to obtain bachelor's degrees until the late 1930s. The college had a mainly Jewish student body, and in recognition of that, the students were exempted from Catholic theology instruction. In September 1912,

5220-697: Is to raise awareness of fellowship opportunities among students, counsel interested students about their eligibility for various programs, and advise fellowship candidates during the application process. With the aid of this office, Fordham was one of the top producers of U.S. Fulbright students of 2012. The Matteo Ricci Society is an honor society for Fordham students who are likely candidates for academic fellowships. Students are invited to join based on academic success and other factors. The society assists its members in preparing applications for fellowships, coordinating internships, and obtaining funding for research endeavors. The Rev. William E. Boyle, S.J., Society

5365-599: The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin) gained prominence during the era. In baseball, a color line instituted in the 1880s had informally barred black people from playing in the major leagues , leading to the development of the Negro leagues , which featured many famous players. A major breakthrough occurred in 1947, when Jackie Robinson was hired as the first African American to play in Major League Baseball; he permanently broke

5510-742: The Eaglebrook School ; the American Theatre Wing, co-presenters of the Tony Awards and the Horace Mann School in New York City. During the 2000 United States House of Representatives elections , Graham challenged incumbent Republican Sue W. Kelly for her seat in New York's 19th congressional district . He was unsuccessful. The wedding of Graham and Pamela Thomas-Graham took place at

5655-617: The Eight Box Law in South Carolina , acted against black and white voters who were illiterate, as they could not follow the directions. While the separation of African Americans from the white general population was becoming legalized and formalized during the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), it was also becoming customary. Even in cases in which Jim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black people from participating in sports or recreation,

5800-731: The Freedom Summer project. The disappearance of the three activists captured national attention and the ensuing outrage was used by Johnson and civil rights activists to build a coalition of northern and western Democrats and Republicans and push Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964. It invoked the Commerce Clause to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, and in private schools and workplaces). This use of

5945-505: The Lincoln Square Renewal Project. This second campus which placed an institution of higher learning in the realm of a multi-disciplinary performing arts complex came to pass through the collaboration of New York City's urban planner Robert Moses and Fordham's twenty sixth President Fr. Laurence J. McGinley . The School of Law was the first to occupy the new campus, but the academic programs at 302 Broadway were moved to

Lawrence Otis Graham - Misplaced Pages Continue

6090-605: The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center , Los Alamos National Laboratory , and organizations worldwide. Fordham University Press , the university's publishing house and an affiliate of Oxford University Press , primarily publishes humanities and social sciences research. The university also hosts an Undergraduate Research Symposium every year during the spring semester and publishes the Undergraduate Research Journal in conjunction with

6235-714: The Reconstruction era . Such continuing racial segregation was also supported by the successful Lily-white movement . In practice, Jim Crow laws mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America and in some others, beginning in the 1870s. Jim Crow laws were upheld in 1896 in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson , in which the Supreme Court laid out its " separate but equal " legal doctrine concerning facilities for African Americans. Moreover, public education had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of

6380-762: The Rose Hill campus in the Bronx , the Lincoln Center campus in Manhattan 's Upper West Side , and the Westchester campus in West Harrison, New York . In addition to these locations, the university maintains a study abroad center in London and field offices in Spain and South Africa. The university offers degrees in over 60 disciplines. The university's athletic teams, the Rams , include

6525-685: The Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation , " Jim Crow " being a pejorative term for an African American . The last of the Jim Crow laws were generally overturned in 1965 . Formal and informal racial segregation policies were present in other areas of the United States as well, even as several states outside the South had banned discrimination in public accommodations and voting. Southern laws were enacted by white-dominated state legislatures ( Redeemers ) to disenfranchise and remove political and economic gains made by African Americans during

6670-454: The U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren . In its pivotal 1954 decision, the Warren Court unanimously (9–0) overturned the 1896 Plessy decision. The Supreme Court found that legally mandated ( de jure ) public school segregation was unconstitutional. The decision had far-reaching social ramifications. Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams was high on

6815-568: The "coloreds only" car. Plessy refused and was immediately arrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the United States Supreme Court. They lost in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), in which the Court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were constitutional. The finding contributed to 58 more years of legalized discrimination against black and colored people in

6960-563: The 1880s in local areas with large black populations, but their voting was suppressed for state and national elections. States passed laws to make voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by most black people and many poor white people began to decrease. Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven former Confederate states , beginning with Mississippi , passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised most black people and tens of thousands of poor white people through

7105-469: The 1920s. However, this did build the foundation for later generations to advance racial equality and de-segregation. Chafe argued that the places essential for change to begin were institutions, particularly black churches, which functioned as centers for community-building and discussion of politics. Additionally, some all-black communities, such as Mound Bayou, Mississippi and Ruthville, Virginia served as sources of pride and inspiration for black society as

7250-517: The 1930s and 1940s. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had been engaged in a series of litigation cases since the early 20th century in efforts to combat laws that disenfranchised black voters across the South. Some of the early demonstrations achieved positive results, strengthening political activism, especially in the post-World War II years. Black veterans were impatient with social oppression after having fought for

7395-466: The 42,811 applicants (47.6%) and enrolled 2,211. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for enrolled freshmen was 580–670 for critical reading, 590–680 for math, and 590–680 for writing, while the ACT Composite middle 50% range was 28–33. The average high school GPA of incoming freshmen was 3.64. All undergraduates pursuing bachelor's degrees at Fordham are required to complete the Core curriculum,

SECTION 50

#1733085431842

7540-569: The ACC schools were successful in their endeavor – as Pamela Grundy argues, they had learned how to win: In 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama . This was not the first time this happened – for example, Parks was inspired by 15-year-old Claudette Colvin doing the same thing nine months earlier – but the Parks act of civil disobedience

7685-542: The Bronx in which its original campus is located, Fordham is the oldest Catholic and Jesuit university in the northeastern United States and the third-oldest university in New York State . Founded as St. John's College by John Hughes , then a coadjutor bishop of New York, the college was placed in the care of the Society of Jesus shortly thereafter, and has since become a Jesuit-affiliated independent school under

7830-657: The City Hall Campus at "the Vincent Astor Building" at 302 Broadway. This commenced an unbroken string of instruction in Manhattan that became what is now Fordham College at Lincoln Center, where all of Fordham's academic operations in Manhattan are centered today. The university closed its medical school in 1919, citing a lack of endowment and reduced university funds overall due to the First World War . The Gabelli School of Business began in 1920 in Manhattan as

7975-688: The Club (HarperCollins) which was originally a cover story on New York Magazine , and was later optioned for a feature film by Warner Brothers . Denzel Washington was scheduled to play Graham but the film was never made. Graham appeared on numerous TV programs including Charlie Rose , Today Show , The View , Hardball with Chris Matthews , and Good Morning America , and was profiled in USA Today and TIME . A former adjunct professor at Fordham University , Graham taught African American Studies as well as American Government. Graham appeared weekly as

8120-450: The Commerce Clause was upheld by the Warren Court in the landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 379 US 241 (1964). By 1965, efforts to break the grip of state disenfranchisement by education for voter registration in southern counties had been underway for some time, but had achieved only modest success overall. In some areas of the Deep South, white resistance made these efforts almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of

8265-433: The Fordham Alumni Association," Kennedy said that, "It is to the eternal credit of Fordham that the teaching of law has here been accompanied by an inculcation of moral values. The graduate of this law school has acquired something more than the tools of his profession—he has learned, both by example and precept, the high obligations of trust which are his as an attorney." In 1961, the Lincoln Center campus opened as part of

8410-428: The Gabelli School of Business. Long-term plans include a new library building and buildings for the graduate schools of Social Service and of Education. Fordham University is composed of four undergraduate and six graduate schools, and its academic ethos is heavily drawn from its Jesuit origins. The university promotes the Jesuit principles of cura personalis , which fosters a faculty and administrative respect for

8555-592: The Gerald M. Quinn Library and the Leo T. Kissam Memorial Law Library at the Lincoln Center campus; and the Media Center at the Westchester campus. In addition to the university's formal libraries, several academic departments, research institutes, and student organizations maintain their own literary collections. The Rose Hill campus's Duane Library , despite its name, is no longer a library but offers reading and study space for students. Fordham maintains several special collections housed in museums and galleries on campus. The Fordham Museum of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Art

8700-552: The Graduate School of Religion and Religious Education. Fordham's graduate programs in business, education, English, history, law, psychology, and social work were all ranked among the top 100 in the nation by the 2016 U.S. News & World Report . Fordham participates in the Inter-University Doctoral Consortium, which allows its doctoral students to take classes at a number of schools in the New York metropolitan area. Fordham's medical school officially closed in 1919, and its College of Pharmacy followed suit in 1972. Nevertheless,

8845-506: The ISAP programs, the university's constituent schools offer a range of study abroad programs that cater to their specific areas of study. Fordham has produced 168 Fulbright scholars since 2003. According to U.S. News & World Report , Fordham is considered a "more selective" university, while a 2013 Barron's survey published in the New York Times classed the university as "highly competitive". In its 2018 edition, admissions selectivity to Fordham's undergraduate schools received

SECTION 60

#1733085431842

8990-457: The Jim Crow era, libraries were only available sporadically. Prior to the 20th century, most libraries established for African Americans were school-library combinations. Many public libraries for both European-American and African-American patrons in this period were founded as the result of middle-class activism aided by matching grants from the Carnegie Foundation . In some cases, progressive measures intended to reduce election fraud, such as

9135-478: The Jim Crow laws, and the so-called "separate but equal" doctrine. In 1954, segregation of public schools (state-sponsored) was declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka . In some states, it took many years to implement this decision, while the Warren Court continued to rule against Jim Crow legislation in other cases such as Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964). In general,

9280-498: The Jim Crow system. The decisive action ending segregation came when Congress in bipartisan fashion overcame Southern filibusters to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . A complex interaction of factors came together unexpectedly in the period 1954–1965 to make the momentous changes possible. The Supreme Court had taken the first initiative in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement

9425-616: The President and Congress to overcome Southern legislators' resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings soon began on the bill that would become the Voting Rights Act. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state and local elections. It also provided for federal oversight and monitoring of counties with historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement have been needed to overcome resistance, and additional legal challenges have been made in

9570-423: The Rose Hill Gymnasium and peals after all Ram athletic victories and at the start of Commencement each year. On February 15, 1958, then-Senator John F. Kennedy received an honorary Doctor of Law degree from university president Laurence J. McGinley and delivered an address at the annual Fordham Law Alumni Association luncheon. After humorously stating that he denied any "presidential aspirations—with respect to

9715-506: The Rose Hill gymnasium that attracted a crowd of 2,800. The first women to attend Fordham came earlier in the century: the Law School began accepting female students in 1918. Women also had been earning Fordham degrees at the Graduate School of Social Service and the Undergraduate School of Education, at the City Hall Campus. Women in the School of Education had also been commuting to the Rose Hill campus to take their science lab courses alongside male students, where women had also been part of

9860-414: The School of Accounting. According to a university catalogue from 1920, the annual cost for tuition, room and board at the college was $ 600 (equivalent to $ 9,126 in 2023). In 1944, the School of Professional and Continuing Studies was established, largely bolstered by returning veterans taking advantage of the GI Bill . The football program was first established in 1882 and gained national renown in

10005-470: The School of Pharmacy's student body. However, in September 1964, the all-female Thomas More College at the Rose Hill campus began instruction for the BA and BS degrees. In response to internal demands for a more "liberalized" curriculum, the university created Bensalem College in 1967. An experimental college with no set requirements and no grades, it was studied by a wide array of educators and covered by journalists at such large-circulation publications of

10150-445: The South after the Civil War in 1861–1865. Companion laws excluded almost all African Americans from the vote in the South and deprived them of any representative government. Although in theory, the "equal" segregation doctrine governed public facilities and transportation too, facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to facilities for white Americans ; sometimes, there were no facilities for

10295-399: The South. As the civil rights movement gained momentum and used federal courts to attack Jim Crow statutes, the white-dominated governments of many of the southern states countered by passing alternative forms of resistance. Historian William Chafe has explored the defensive techniques developed inside the African American community to avoid the worst features of Jim Crow as expressed in

10440-435: The South. One rationale for the systematic exclusion of African Americans from southern public society was that it was for their own protection. An early 20th-century scholar suggested that allowing black people to attend white schools would mean "constantly subjecting them to adverse feeling and opinion", which might lead to "a morbid race consciousness". This perspective took anti-black sentiment for granted, because bigotry

10585-705: The Southern agenda in the 1950s and 1960s. Involved were issues of equality, racism, and the alumni demand for the top players needed to win high-profile games. The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) of flagship state universities in the Southeast took the lead. First they started to schedule integrated teams from the North. Finally, ACC schools – typically under pressure from boosters and civil rights groups – integrated their teams. With an alumni base that dominated local and state politics, society and business,

10730-508: The Story of America’s First Black Political Dynasty (HarperCollins) is a biography of U.S. Senator Blanche Bruce , the first black person to serve a full term in the U.S. Senate. Graham is also the author of such books as The Best Companies for Minorities ( Penguin Books ) and Proversity: Getting Past Face Value ( John Wiley & Sons )—two guides on diversity in the workplace—as well as Member of

10875-537: The Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Jung delivered a series of lectures at Fordham; these lectures marked his historic break with the theories of his colleague, Sigmund Freud . The College of St. Francis Xavier was closed in 1913, and various Fordham colleges were opened at the Woolworth Building in Manhattan to fill the void. Some divisions of the university including the law school were later moved to

11020-650: The Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo  – an appointee of the President ;– was heard to express his opinion of black and white women working together in one government office: "I feel sure that this must go against the grain of the white women. Is there any reason why the white women should not have only white women working across from them on the machines?" The Wilson administration introduced segregation in federal offices, despite much protest from African-American leaders and white progressive groups in

11165-503: The Union address , Johnson asked Congress to "let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined." On June 21, civil rights workers Michael Schwerner , Andrew Goodman , and James Chaney disappeared in Neshoba County, Mississippi , where they were volunteering in the registration of African American voters as part of

11310-505: The United States and freedom across the world. In 1947 K. Leroy Irvis of Pittsburgh 's Urban League, for instance, led a demonstration against employment discrimination by the city's department stores. It was the beginning of his own influential political career. After World War II, people of color increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had more than earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices. The civil rights movement

11455-679: The United States. In 1908, Congress defeated an attempt to introduce segregated streetcars into the capital. White Southerners encountered problems in learning free labor management after the end of slavery, and they resented African Americans, who represented the Confederacy 's Civil War defeat: "With white supremacy being challenged throughout the South, many whites sought to protect their former status by threatening African Americans who exercised their new rights." White Southerners used their power to segregate public spaces and facilities in law and reestablish social dominance over black people in

11600-471: The all- black 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry American Civil War regiment, attended the junior division. An Artium Baccalaureus degree was earned for completion of both curricula, and an additional year of philosophy would earn a Magister Artium degree. There was also a "commercial" track similar to a modern business school , offered as an alternative to the Classical curriculum and resulting in

11745-433: The bachelor's degrees offered to undergraduates, the university also offers specialized academic programs, including pre-medical and health professions; pre-professional programs in architecture, law, and criminal justice; a 3-2 engineering program, in conjunction with Columbia and Case Western Reserve Universities; a five-year teacher certification program; an Applied Public Accountancy ( CPA certification) program;

11890-706: The backdrop of church bombings and assassinations. In summer 1963, there were 800 demonstrations in 200 southern cities and towns, with over 100,000 participants, and 15,000 arrests. In Alabama in June 1963, Governor George Wallace escalated the crisis by defying court orders to admit the first two black students to the University of Alabama . Kennedy responded by sending Congress a comprehensive civil rights bill, and ordered Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, and to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Martin Luther King launched

12035-475: The black community at all. Far from equality, as a body of law, Jim Crow institutionalized economic, educational, political and social disadvantages and second-class citizenship for most African Americans living in the United States. After the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909, it became involved in a sustained public protest and campaigns against

12180-513: The board of trustees continues to maintain the institution as a "Jesuit, Catholic university." The College of Pharmacy closed in 1972 due to declining enrollment. Fordham College at Rose Hill became coeducational in 1974 when it merged with Thomas More College. Fordham Preparatory School is a four-year, all-male college preparatory school that was once integrated with the university, sharing its 1841 founding. "Fordham Prep" became legally independent in 1972 when it moved to its own facilities on

12325-558: The campus since the merger with Marymount. President McShane stated the university's decision was nonetheless a "painful" one. Fordham then indicated its intention to move the remaining programs from the Marymount campus to a new location in Harrison, New York , by the autumn of 2008. On February 17, 2008, the university announced the sale of the campus for $ 27 million to EF Schools , a chain of private language-instruction schools. In 2014,

12470-441: The campus would remain open for Fordham graduate programs in several disciplines. In the autumn of 2007, the university announced its intention to seek buyers for the Marymount campus. Administrators stated the expenses required to support the programs at the campus far exceeded the demand. University officials estimated the revenue gained from the proposed sale would not be greater than the expenses incurred maintaining and improving

12615-401: The college level. As a result of the act, St. John's brought a cadet corps to campus. From 1885 to 1890, Lt. Herbert C. Squires—a veteran of the 7th U.S. Cavalry —built a cadet battalion to a strength of 200, which would provide the foundation for the modern ROTC unit at Fordham. The college built a science building in 1886, lending more legitimacy to science in the curriculum. In addition,

12760-534: The college remained open as a single-sex institution, and its campus received a branch of the School of Professional and Continuing Studies as well as extensions of the graduate schools for education, social service, and business administration. In 2005, Fordham announced that its Marymount College campus would be phased out; Marymount awarded degrees to its final undergraduate class in May 2007. University administrators indicated

12905-589: The college's church bells as the inspiration for this poem. Poe also spent considerable time in the college's library, and even occasionally stayed overnight. St. John's curriculum consisted of a junior division (which would become Fordham Prep ), requiring four years of study in Latin, Greek, grammar, literature, history, geography, mathematics, and religion; and a senior division (i.e. the college), requiring three years study in "poetry" ( humanities ), rhetoric, and philosophy. Colonel Robert Gould Shaw , famed commander of

13050-566: The color bar. Baseball teams continued to integrate in the following years, leading to the full participation of black baseball players in the Major Leagues in the 1960s. Fordham University Fordham University ( / ˈ f ɔːr d ə m / ) is a private Jesuit research university in New York City , United States. Established in 1841 and named after the Fordham neighborhood of

13195-762: The courts to ensure the ability of voters to elect candidates of their choice. For instance, many cities and counties introduced at-large election of council members, which resulted in many cases of diluting minority votes and preventing election of minority-supported candidates. In 2013, the Roberts Court , in Shelby County v. Holder , removed the requirement established by the Voting Rights Act that Southern states needed Federal approval for changes in voting policies. Several states immediately made changes in their laws restricting voting access. The Jim Crow laws and

13340-594: The day as Look , Esquire and the Saturday Review . The school closed in 1974. "The Liberal Arts College" for undergraduates opened in 1968, later changing its name to "The College at Lincoln Center" and then in 1996 to "Fordham College at Lincoln Center." In 1993, a twenty-story residence hall for 850 students was added to the Lincoln Center campus. In the late 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement

13485-544: The early 20th century. Fordham football played on some of the largest stages in sports, including games in front of sellout crowds at the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium , a Cotton Bowl appearance and a Sugar Bowl victory. The program produced the famed Seven Blocks of Granite , one of whom was the great Vince Lombardi . On September 30, 1939, Fordham participated in the world's first televised football game, defeating Waynesburg College , 34–7. The university discontinued

13630-552: The end of the 19th century, these statutes became known as Jim Crow laws. In January 1865, an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery in the United States was proposed by Congress and ratified as the Thirteenth Amendment on December 18, 1865. During the Reconstruction era of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U.S. South for freedmen , African Americans who were former slaves, and

13775-462: The first American cardinal ) was the school's first president, and the faculty were secular priests and lay instructors. The college presidency went through a succession of four diocesan priests in five years, including the Rev. James Roosevelt Bayley , a distant cousin of Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt and a nephew of St. Elizabeth Ann Seton . In 1845, the seminary church, Our Lady of Mercy,

13920-614: The game while a student at Fordham from 1863 to 1868. After playing for several American major league teams, he returned home and played in the first organized baseball game in Cuba on December 27, 1874. Charles, Henry, and Frederick Zaldo, brothers from Havana who founded the Almendares Baseball Club, one of the three original Cuban baseball teams, also learned the game while attending Fordham from 1875 to 1878. An Act of Congress created instruction in military science and tactics at

14065-613: The grounds it offered "separate but equal" accommodation. In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations for colored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguished between "white", "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixed European and African ancestry). The law had already specified that black people could not ride with white people, but colored people could ride with white people before 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and white citizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to rescinding

14210-768: The high rate of lynchings in the South were major factors that led to the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century. Because opportunities were very limited in the South, African Americans moved in great numbers to cities in Northeastern, Midwestern, and Western states to seek better lives. African American athletes faced much discrimination during the Jim Crow era with white opposition leading to their exclusion from most organized sporting competitions. The boxers Jack Johnson and Joe Louis (both of whom became world heavyweight boxing champions ) and track and field athlete Jesse Owens (who won four gold medals at

14355-462: The history of baseball in the nineteenth century, and played a key role in introducing the game to Cuba and Latin America. On November 3, 1859, Fordham played the first college baseball game with modern nine-man teams against the now-defunct St. Francis Xavier College in Manhattan. Fordham won the game 33–11. Steve Bellán , the first Cuban and Latin American to play major league baseball, learned to play

14500-545: The honors wing of Hughes Hall for the Global Business Honors Program. Upon graduating from the university, honors students receive the designation of in cursu honorum on their diploma and transcripts. In addition to its honors programs, Fordham has chapters of several honor societies on campus, including but not limited to the following: The Office of Prestigious Fellowships is the university's office for academic fellowships and scholarships. Its function

14645-490: The individual student and all of his or her gifts and abilities; magis , which encourages students to challenge themselves and strive for excellence in their lives; and homines pro aliis , which intends to inspire service, a universal charity, among members of the Fordham community. Through its International and Study Abroad Programs (ISAP) Office, Fordham provides its students with over 130 different study abroad opportunities. The programs range in duration from six weeks to

14790-462: The law. Woodrow Wilson was a Democrat elected from New Jersey, but he was born and raised in the South, and was the first Southern-born president of the post- Civil War period. He appointed Southerners to his Cabinet . Some quickly began to press for segregated workplaces, although the city of Washington, D.C., and federal offices had been integrated since after the Civil War. In 1913, Secretary of

14935-478: The law. The group persuaded Homer Plessy to test it; he was a man of color who was of fair complexion and one-eighth "Negro" in ancestry. In 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket from New Orleans on the East Louisiana Railway. Once he had boarded the train, he informed the train conductor of his racial lineage and took a seat in the whites-only car. He was directed to leave that car and sit instead in

15080-399: The legal system, unbalanced economic power, and intimidation and psychological pressure. Chafe says "protective socialization by black people themselves" was created inside the community in order to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as "walking the tightrope", such efforts at bringing about change were only slightly effective before

15225-494: The majority of the state's population. By 1910, only 730 black people were registered, less than 0.5% of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state's 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was." The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that black voters were eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896 to 1904. The growth of their thriving middle class

15370-1011: The middle site along an 81-mile (130 km) urban-forest transect known as the Urban-Rural Gradient Experiment; the William Spain Seismic Observatory, a data collection unit for the US Geological Survey ; and other facilities. It is a member of the Bronx Scientific Research Consortium, which also includes the New York Botanical Garden , the Bronx Zoo , the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University, and Montefiore Medical Center. Furthermore, Fordham faculty have conducted research with such institutions as

15515-481: The minority of black people who had been free before the war. In the 1870s, Democrats gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures as violent insurgent paramilitary groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan , White League , and Red Shirts disrupted Republican organizing, ran Republican officeholders out of town, and lynched black voters as an intimidation tactic to suppress the black vote. Extensive voter fraud

15660-517: The new location in 1969. In addition, on November 18, 1961, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy received an honorary degree and delivered an address at the dedication of the new Fordham Law School building in Lincoln Center, paying tribute to "Fordham ideals, traditions and teachers." Kennedy said that he was privileged, as attorney general, to be "the largest single employer of Fordham law graduates in North America," and also remarked that, "While

15805-502: The new restrictions. Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, and their interests were overlooked. While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time in most Southern states, those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for white children, even when considered within

15950-636: The north and midwest. He appointed segregationist Southern politicians because of his own firm belief that racial segregation was in the best interest of black and European Americans alike. At the Great Reunion of 1913 at Gettysburg , Wilson addressed the crowd on July 4, the semi-centennial of Abraham Lincoln 's declaration that " all men are created equal ": How complete the union has become and how dear to all of us, how unquestioned, how benign and majestic, as state after state has been added to this, our great family of free men! In sharp contrast to Wilson,

16095-646: The northwest corner of the Rose Hill campus. The school continues to retain many connections with the university. Marymount College was an independent women's college that was founded in 1907 by the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary . The school was consolidated into Fordham in July 2002. Marymount had been steeped in financial hardship since the 1970s. Located 25 miles (40 km) north of Manhattan in Tarrytown, New York,

16240-441: The occasion of the centennial of the granting of Fordham's charter. The president received an honorary degree and delivered a nationally broadcast address on the subject of veterans' education, the dangers of atomic warfare, and the importance of education to civilization. His address concluded with the words, "I am confident that this splendid institution, with its educational system rounded [ sic ] upon Christian principles, will play

16385-632: The old, much more moderate NAACP in taking leadership roles. King organized massive demonstrations, that seized massive media attention in an era when network television news was an innovative and universally watched phenomenon. SCLC, student activists and smaller local organizations staged demonstrations across the South. National attention focused on Birmingham , Alabama, where protesters mostly young teenagers, faced off against Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor , Connor arrested 900 on one day alone. The next day Connor unleashed billy clubs, police dogs, and high-pressure water hoses to disperse and punish

16530-647: The over 20 million volumes of the New York Public Library System as well as to media from the libraries of Columbia University, New York University , the City University of New York , and other libraries around the world. Fordham's libraries include the William D. Walsh Family Library , ranked in 2004 as the fifth best collegiate library in the country, and the Science Library at the Rose Hill campus;

16675-470: The presidential election resulted in the government withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, " Redeemer " governments legislated Jim Crow laws, officially segregating the country's population. Jim Crow laws were a manifestation of authoritarian rule specifically directed at one racial group. Black people were still elected to local offices throughout

16820-427: The program during World War II , reinstating it in 1946. However, it proved much less successful and too expensive to maintain, and was again discontinued in 1954, though would revive yet again as an NCAA Division III team in 1970 and Division I team in 1989. The 1940s bore witness to two official presidential visits at Fordham, the first by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 28, 1940, during his campaign for

16965-510: The record for most NCAA Division I baseball victories in history. Fordham's alumni and faculty include former President Donald Trump , U.S. Senators and representatives , four cardinals of the Catholic Church, several U.S. governors and ambassadors , a number of billionaires, two directors of the CIA , Academy Award and Emmy -winning actors, royalty , a foreign head of state ,

17110-469: The remaining Jim Crow laws were generally overturned by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . Southern state anti-miscegenation laws were generally overturned in the 1967 case of Loving v. Virginia . The earliest known use of the phrase "Jim Crow law" can be dated to 1884 in a newspaper article summarizing congressional debate. The term appears in 1892 in the title of

17255-433: The requirements. In Oklahoma , for instance, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or related to someone qualified to vote before 1866 (a kind of " grandfather clause "), was exempted from the literacy requirement; but the only men who had the franchise before that year were white or European-American. European Americans were effectively exempted from the literacy testing, whereas black Americans were effectively singled out by

17400-600: The school newspaper, The Orange. Graham went on to attend Princeton University , where he majored in English, was a member of Whig-Clio and the Carl A. Fields Center (formally, the Third World Center), and was recognized as an active in social-justice issues. After graduating Princeton with a Bachelor of Arts in English, Graham went on to earn a Juris Doctor degree from Harvard Law School in 1988. Afterwards, he practiced as

17545-449: The seminary property, which totaled about nine acres. In 1847, Fordham's first school in Manhattan opened. The school became the independently chartered College of St. Francis Xavier in 1861. It was also in 1847 that the American poet Edgar Allan Poe arrived in the village of Fordham and began a friendship with the college Jesuits that would last throughout his life. In 1849, he published his famed work The Bells . Some traditions credit

17690-413: The strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a low. Like schools, public libraries for black people were underfunded, if they existed at all, and they were often stocked with secondhand books and other resources. These facilities were not introduced for African Americans in the South until the first decade of the 20th century. Throughout

17835-531: The student body, and even southern students attending the college mourned his loss. As Richard S. Treacy of the class of 1869 later recalled, "The morning we received the news of the death of President Lincoln gloom settled over the entire college, even the southern boys, who before had censored him, now felt that they had lost a valuable friend whose great qualities would be missed in the coming reconstruction ." Fordham's baseball team , which played its first game on September 13, 1859, made several contributions to

17980-537: The symposium. In addition, it facilitates research opportunities for undergraduates with such organizations as the National Science Foundation , The Cloisters , and the American Museum of Natural History . Fordham's undergraduate schools all offer honors programs for their students. The programs' curricula are modified versions of the Core Curriculum. For example, the Fordham College Honors Program,

18125-399: The third-oldest university in the state of New York, and the first Catholic institution of higher education in the northeastern United States. In 1839, Hughes, then 42 years old, had purchased the 106-acre Rose Hill Manor farm in the village of Fordham, New York for $ 29,750. His intent was to establish St. Joseph's Seminary following the model of Mount Saint Mary's University , of which he

18270-547: The three voting-rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along with numerous other acts of violence and terrorism against black people, had gained national attention. Finally, the unprovoked attack on March 7, 1965 , by county and state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge en route from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery , persuaded

18415-562: The university continues its tradition of medical education through a collaboration with the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University . The partnership allows Fordham undergraduate and graduate science students to take classes, conduct research, and pursue early admission to select programs of Einstein. In addition, it involves a physician mentoring program, which permits students to shadow an attending physician at Einstein's Montefiore Medical Center . The university

18560-412: The university successfully completed a five-year, $ 500 million campaign; the project surpassed expectations by raising more than $ 540 million. The university went on to renovate and expand its Lincoln Center campus, opening in 2014 its renovated Law School, as well as an additional undergraduate dormitory, McKeon Hall. The former law school building was converted to expand Quinn Library and house

18705-475: The university's African and African American Studies Department, one of the first black studies departments in the nation, as well as the paper , the leftist student newspaper on campus, were founded. The board of trustees was reorganized in 1969 to include a majority of nonclerical members, which officially made the university an independent institution. While the Jesuit order thereby lost full control of Fordham,

18850-474: The village of Fordham, in which the original Rose Hill campus is located. The village, in turn, drew its name from its location near a shallow crossing of the Bronx River (" ford by the hamlet "). When Fordham and several other Westchester County towns were consolidated into Bronx County at the turn of the twentieth century, the village became the borough's Fordham neighborhood. Still in existence today, it

18995-510: The word " racism " into the lexicon of U.S. Supreme Court opinions in Korematsu v. United States , 323 U.S. 214 (1944). In his dissenting opinion, Murphy stated that by upholding the forced relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II, the Court was sinking into "the ugly abyss of racism". This was the first time that "racism" was used in Supreme Court opinion (Murphy used it twice in

19140-402: The world we know is preoccupied by what may lie before it, when threats could pervade our every thought and fears our every action, it is reassuring to see buildings and programs like these rise each day to greet the future. It is a mark of courage and resolution." On November 2, 1964, during his campaign for the U.S. Senate , Robert F. Kennedy made another visit to Fordham and gave an address at

19285-474: The young demonstrators with a brutality that horrified the nation. The brutality undermined the image of a modernizing progressive urban South. President John F. Kennedy , who had been calling for moderation, threatened to use federal troops to restore order in Birmingham. The result in Birmingham was compromise by which the new mayor opened the library, golf courses, and other city facilities to both races, against

19430-690: Was Catholic. Graham died in Chappaqua on February 19, 2021. He was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Westchester . On Friday May 19, 2023, Westchester County held a dedication event of the Graham Garden and Memorial in the Kensico Dam Plaza in honor of the life and legacy of Lawrence Otis Graham for his lifelong public service and commitment to racial equity. Graham's books centralize on African-American social class . Jim crow era The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws introduced in

19575-522: Was also used. In one instance, an outright coup or insurrection in coastal North Carolina led to the violent removal of democratically elected Republican party executive and representative officials, who were either hunted down or hounded out. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, with increasing violence against black Americans during campaigns from 1868 onward. The Compromise of 1877 to gain Southern support in

19720-584: Was an alumnus. "Rose Hill" was the name originally given to the site in 1787 by its owner, Robert Watts, a wealthy New York merchant, in honor of his family's ancestral home in Scotland. In 1840, St. Joseph's Seminary opened at Rose Hill. The seminary was paired with St. John's College, which opened at Rose Hill with a student body of six on June 24, 1841, the feast day of Saint John the Baptist . The Reverend John McCloskey (later archbishop of New York and eventually

19865-637: Was built. The same year, Bishop Hughes convinced several Jesuit priests from the St. Mary's College in Kentucky to staff St. John's. The college received its charter from the New York State Legislature in 1846, and the first Jesuits began to arrive about three months later. In the same year Bishop Hughes sold St. John's College to the Jesuits for $ 40,000. Hughes deeded the college over but retained title to

20010-418: Was chosen, symbolically, as an important catalyst in the growth of the post-1954 civil rights movement ; activists built the Montgomery bus boycott around it, which lasted more than a year and resulted in desegregation of the privately run buses in the city. Civil rights protests and actions, together with legal challenges, resulted in a series of legislative and court decisions which contributed to undermining

20155-417: Was energized by a number of flashpoints, including the 1946 police beating and blinding of World War II veteran Isaac Woodard while he was in U.S. Army uniform. In 1948 President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 , ending racial discrimination in the armed services. That same year, Silas Herbert Hunt enrolled in the University of Arkansas , effectively starting the desegregation of education in

20300-643: Was gathering momentum in the U.S. when Fordham students and school officials expressed ambivalence about racial justice. In the late 1960s, Fordham became a center of political activism and countercultural activity. At the Rose Hill Campus, the Fordham branch of Students for a Democratic Society organized opposition to the existence of the ROTC and military recruiters. During this period, students routinely organized protests and class boycotts and used psychoactive drugs on campus open spaces. In 1969, students organized

20445-521: Was outlawed for businesses with 25 or more employees, as well as apartment houses. The South resisted until the last moment, but as soon as the new law was signed by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, it was widely accepted across the nation. There was only a scattering of diehard opposition, typified by restaurant owner Lester Maddox in Georgia. In January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson met with civil rights leaders. On January 8, during his first State of

20590-624: Was rapid in the North and border states, but was deliberately stopped in the South by the movement called Massive Resistance , sponsored by rural segregationists who largely controlled the state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counseled moderation, were shouted down by both sides and had limited impact. Much more significant was the civil rights movement, especially the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) headed by Martin Luther King Jr. It largely displaced

20735-457: Was slowed. In North Carolina and other Southern states, black people suffered from being made invisible in the political system: "[W]ithin a decade of disfranchisement, the white supremacy campaign had erased the image of the black middle class from the minds of white North Carolinians." In Alabama , tens of thousands of poor whites were also disenfranchised, although initially legislators had promised them they would not be affected adversely by

20880-551: Was the most powerful affirmation of equal rights ever made by Congress. It guaranteed access to public accommodations such as restaurants and places of amusement, authorized the Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities in schools, gave new powers to the Civil Rights Commission ; and allowed federal funds to be cut off in cases of discrimination. Furthermore, racial, religious and gender discrimination

21025-462: Was widespread in the South after slavery became a racial caste system. Justifications for white supremacy were provided by scientific racism and negative stereotypes of African Americans . Social segregation, from housing to laws against interracial chess games, was justified as a way to prevent black men from having sex with white women and in particular the rapacious Black Buck stereotype. In 1944, Associate Justice Frank Murphy introduced

#841158