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31-725: During the Old Assyrian Trade Network into Anatolia it was mentioned as Luhuzantiya . The earliest mention of the city comes from the Old Assyrian documents as a trading colony in Kaniš , where the place Luḫuzatia is often mentioned, which is common to Lawazantiya. In the late 17th century BC, Lawazantiya was a target for Hittite expansion to the sea and the base of the military campaigns of Ḫattušili I (c. 1620 BC). He went northeast attacking Urshu and Hassu , which then got aid from Halap (Aleppo) and Carchemish . In Hittite texts

62-553: A massive and still visible course of walls erected during the reign of Suppiluliuma I ( c.  1344 –1322 BC ( short chronology )). The inner city covered an area of some 0.8 km (200 acres) and was occupied by a citadel with large administrative buildings and temples. The royal residence, or acropolis , was built on a high ridge now known as Büyükkale (Great Fortress). The city displayed over 6 km (3.7 mi) of walls, with inner and outer skins around 3 m of thick and 2 m of space between them, adding 8 m of

93-679: Is given the name Ankuva . That is also a reference to archaeological discoveries of various karu in Central Anatolia. Hattusa Hattusa , also Hattuşa , Ḫattuša , Hattusas , or Hattusha , was the capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age during two distinct periods. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale , Turkey , (originally Boğazköy) within the great loop of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite: Marashantiya ; Greek: Halys ). Charles Texier brought attention to

124-614: The Akkadian language and what later was determined to be the Hittite language . Between 1901 and 1905 Waldemar Belck visited the site several times, finding a number of tablets. In 1905 Hugo Winckler conducted some soundings at Boğazköy on behalf of the German Oriental Society (DOG), finding 35 more cuneiform tablet fragments at the site of the royal fortress, Büyükkale. Winckler began actual excavations in 1906, focusing mainly on

155-571: The 13th century BC, Hattušili III met and married Pudu-Heba , daughter of Pentipšarri, a priest of Šauška, in Lawazantiya. She was a strong promoter of Kizzuwatnean cults and traditions. For the Festival for Teššup and Ḫebat of Lawazantiya, see CTH 699. The city is known to have been part of the Kizzuwatna region. Gojko Barjamovic considers Luḫuzatia and Lawazantiya to be two separate localities, with

186-566: The 1986 excavations a large (35 × 24 cm, 5 kg in weight, with 2 attached chains) inscribed metal tablet was discovered 35 meters west of the Sphinx Gate. The tablet, from the 13th century BC, contained a treaty between Hittite Tudḫaliya IV and Kurunta , King of Tarḫuntašša . It is held at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. During 1991 repair work at the site a Mycenae bronze sword

217-507: The 20th to 18th centuries BC. The main centre of karum trading was at the ancient town of Kanesh . Early references to karu come from the Ebla tablets ; in particular, a vizier known as Ebrium concluded the earliest treaty fully known to archaeology, known variously as the "Treaty between Ebla and Aššur " or the "Treaty with Abarsal " (scholars have disputed whether the text refers to Aššur or to Abarsal, an unknown location). In either case,

248-670: The Hittite Empire New Kingdom period, known as the Bogazköy Archive , consisting of official correspondence and contracts, as well as legal codes, procedures for cult ceremony, oracular prophecies and literature of the ancient Near East. One particularly important tablet , currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum , details the terms of a peace settlement reached years after the Battle of Kadesh between

279-722: The Hittites and the Egyptians under Ramesses II , in 1259 or 1258 BC. A copy is on display in the United Nations in New York City as an example of the earliest known international peace treaties. Although the 30,000 or so clay tablets recovered from Hattusa form the main corpus of Hittite literature, archives have since appeared at other centers in Anatolia, such as Tabigga (Maşat Höyük) and Sapinuwa (Ortaköy). A pair of sphinxes found at

310-450: The Old Assyrian dialect of Akkadian were found in the early 2nd millennium BC karum. By the middle of the 2nd millennium a scribal community had grown up in Hattusa based on Syrian, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian input. This included the usual range of Akkadian and Sumerian language texts. One of the most important discoveries at the site has been the cuneiform royal archives of clay tablets from

341-594: The city is known as Lawazantiya (also: Lahuwazantiya , Lauwanzantiya or Lahuzzandiya ), in Ugarit as Lwsnd and in Assyrian Annals as Lusanda . There is a Hittite document entitled "Festival of Teššub and Ḫebat of Lawazantiya" which has the king calling these deities in to open the spring festival. In the Telipinu Edict that Hittite ruler (c. 1525-1500 BC) reports that the city had rebelled and been retaken. In

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372-584: The former locating in Elbistan . Meanwhile Lawazantiya might be located at Sirkeli Höyük . Tatarli Höyük has also been proposed as the location based on cylinder and stamp seals found at that site. Karum (trade post) Karum ( Akkadian : kārum "quay, port, commercial district", plural kārū , from Sumerian kar "fortification (of a harbor), break-water" ) is the name given to ancient Old Assyrian period trade posts in Anatolia (modern Turkey ) from

403-454: The king assigned his younger brother, the future Hattusili III as governor over Hattusa. In the mid-13th century BC Hittite ruler Mursili III returned the seat to Hattusa, where the capital remained until the end of the Hittite kingdom in the 12th century BC (KBo 21.15 i 11–12). At its peak, the city covered 1.8 km (440 acres) and comprised an inner and outer portion, both surrounded by

434-533: The king of Purushanda (in Anatolia), for mistreating the Akkadian and Assyrian merchant class in the karu there. However, no contemporary source mentions that to be the case. During the 2nd millennium BC, Anatolia was under the sovereignty of Hatti city-states and later the Hittites . By 1960 BC, Assyrian merchants had established the karu , small colonial settlements next to Anatolian cities, which paid taxes to

465-499: The lower city. A carbonized layer apparent in excavations attests to the burning and ruin of the city of Hattusa around 1700 BC. The responsible party appears to have been King Anitta from Kussara , who took credit for the act and erected an inscribed curse for good measure: "Whoever after me becomes king resettles Hattusas, let the Stormgod of the Sky strike him!" though in fact the city

496-518: The major focus. The work was under the auspices of the DOG and German Archaeological Institute (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut) and lasted 9 seasons until being suspended due to the outbreak of WWII in 1939. Excavation resumed in 1952 under Bittel with Peter Neve replacing as field director in 1963 and as director in 1978, continuing until 1993. The focus was on the Upper City area. Publication of tablets

527-474: The nearby site of Yazılıkaya. Perrot was the first to suggest, in 1886, that Boğazköy was the Hittite capital of Hattusa. In 1882 German engineer Carl Humann completed a full plan of the site. Ernest Chantre opened some trial trenches at the village then called Boğazköy, in 1893–94, with excavations being cut short by a cholera outbreak. Significantly Chantre discovered some fragments of clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform. The fragments contain text in both

558-541: The newly discovered iron and was forty times more valuable than silver. The most important Anatolian export was copper, and the Assyrian merchants sold tin and clothing to Anatolia. The name Karum is given to an upscale shopping mall in Çankaya district of modern-day Ankara , Turkey. It is a reference to the presence of karu in Asia Minor since the very early days of history. Another mall in Ankara's Bilkent district

589-526: The other city contracted to establish karu in Eblaite territory (Syria), among other things. “The word derives from the mercantile quarter of Mesopotamian cities, which were usually just beyond the city walls, at a convenient landing place by the main waterway.” Sargon the Great (of Akkadia) who likely destroyed Ebla soon afterward, is said in a much-later Hittite account to have invaded Anatolia to punish Nurdaggal,

620-465: The population of the city around 10,000; in the early period, the inner city housed a third of that number. The dwelling houses that were built with timber and mud bricks have vanished from the site, leaving only the stone-built walls of temples and palaces. The city was destroyed, together with the Hittite state itself, around 1200 BC, as part of the Bronze Age collapse . Excavations suggest that Hattusa

651-610: The royal fortress area. Thousands of tablets were recovered, most in the then unreadable Hittite language. The few Akkadian texts firmly identified the site as Hattusa. Winckler returned in 1907 (with Otto Puchstein , Heinrich Kohl , Ludwig Curtius and Daniel Krencker ), and briefly in 1911 and 1912 (with Theodore Makridi ). Work stopped with the outbreak of WWI. Tablets from these excavations were published in two series Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazkoi (KB0) and Keilschrift urkunden aus Boghazköi (KUB). Work resumed in 1931 under prehistorian Kurt Bittel with establishing stratigraphy as

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682-615: The ruins after his visit in 1834. Over the following century, sporadic exploration occurred, involving different archaeologists. In the 20th century, the German Oriental Society and the German Archaeological Institute conducted systematic excavations, which continue to this day. Hattusa was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site list in 1986. The earliest traces of settlement on the site are from

713-414: The rulers of the cities. There were also smaller trade stations which were called mabartū (singular mabartum ). The number of karu and mabartu was probably around 20. Among them were Kültepe (Kanesh in antiquity) in modern Kayseri Province ; Alişar Hüyük (Ankuva (?) in antiquity) in modern Yozgat Province ; and Boğazköy ( Hattusa in antiquity) in modern Çorum Province . (However, Alişar Hüyük

744-516: The sixth millennium BC during the Chalcolithic period. Toward the end of the 3rd Millennium BC the Hattian people established a settlement on locations that had been occupied even earlier and referred to the site as Hattush. In the 19th and 18th centuries BC, merchants from Assyria , centered at Kanesh (Neša) (modern Kültepe) established a trading post there, setting up in their own separate quarter of

775-400: The total thickness. To the south lay an outer city of about 1 km (250 acres), with elaborate gateways decorated with reliefs showing warriors, lions, and sphinxes. Four temples were located here, each set around a porticoed courtyard, together with secular buildings and residential structures. Outside the walls are cemeteries, most of which contain cremation burials. Modern estimates put

806-677: Was found on the western slope. It was inscribed, in Akkadian, "As Duthaliya the Great King shattered the Assuwa-Country he dedicated these swords to the Storm-God, his lord". Another significant find during the 1990-91 excavation season in the "Westbau" building of the upper city, was 3400 sealed bullae and clay lumps dating from the 2nd half of the 13th century BC. They were primarily associated with land documents. Forty mercantile documents written in

837-458: Was gradually abandoned over a period of several decades as the Hittite empire disintegrated. It has been suggested that a regional drought occurred at that time. Still, signs of final destruction by fire have been noted. The site was subsequently abandoned until 800 BC, when a modest Phrygian settlement appeared in the area. In 1833, the French archaeologist Félix Marie Charles Texier (1802–1871)

868-472: Was probably a mabartum .) However, after the establishment of the Hittite Empire , the karu disappeared from Anatolian history. In the 2nd millennium BC money was not yet in use, and Assyrian merchants used gold for wholesale trade and silver for retail trade. Gold was considered eight times more valuable than silver. However, another metal, amutum , was even more valuable than gold. It is thought to be

899-525: Was rebuilt afterward, possibly by a son of Anitta. In the first half of the 2nd Millennium BC around the year 1650 BC the Hittite king Labarna moved the capital from Neša to Hattusa and took the name of Hattusili , the "one/man from Hattusa". After the Kaskians arrived to the kingdom's north, they twice attacked the city and under king Tudhaliya I , the Hittites moved the capital north to Sapinuwa . Under Muwatalli II , they moved south to Tarhuntassa but

930-505: Was resumed in the KUB and KBo. In 1994 Jürgen Seeher assumed control of the excavation, leading there until 2005, with the focus on the Büyükkaya and non-monumental areas including economic and residential spaces. From 2006 on, while some archaeology continued under new director Andreas Schachner, activities have been more focused toward restoration and preparation for tourist operations. During

961-469: Was sent on an exploratory mission to Turkey, where in 1834 he discovered monumental ruins near the town of Boğazköy. Texier made topographical measurements, produced illustrations, and composed a preliminary site plan. The site was subsequently visited by a number of European travelers and explorers, most notably the German geographer Heinrich Barth in 1858. Georges Perrot excavated at the site in 1861 and at

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