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48-805: The Luni is the largest river in the Thar Desert in Northwest India . It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range , near Ajmer , passes through the southeastern portion of the Thar Desert, and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat , after travelling a distance of 495 km (308 mi). It is first known as Sagarmati , then after passing Govindgarh, it meets its tributary Sarasvati, which originates from Pushkar Lake and from then on it
96-785: A delta channel of the Indus River , changed its course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers which did not reach the sea and now ends in the Thar desert. Around 5,000 years ago when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished further, the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) prospered in this area, with the rise of numerous IVC urban sites at Kalibangan ( Rajasthan ), Banawali and Rakhigarhi ( Haryana ), Dholavira and Lothal ( Gujarat ) along this course. 4,000 years ago when monsoons diminished even further,
144-603: A herbivorous dinosaur group known as dicraeosaurids . This discovery marks the first of its kind to be unearthed in India and is also the oldest specimen of the group ever recorded in the global fossil record. During the Last Glacial Maximum 20,000 before present, an approximately 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) ice sheet covered the Tibetan Plateau , causing excessive radiative forcing i.e.
192-570: A large, eel-like fish , usually of dark gray or black coloration on the back, fading to a white belly. In Africa , this catfish has been reported as being second in size only to the vundu of the Zambesian waters, although FishBase suggests the African sharptooth catfish surpasses that species in both maximum length and weight. C. gariepinus has an average adult length of 1–1.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in). It reaches
240-617: A local community, the Bishnois , has made special efforts to protect them. Other mammals in the Thar Desert include a subspecies of red fox ( Vulpes vulpes pusilla ) and the caracal , and a number of reptiles dwell there too. The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident desert birds, including harriers , falcons , buzzards , kestrels , vultures , short-toed eagles ( Circaetus gallicus ), tawny eagles ( Aquila rapax ), greater spotted eagles ( Aquila clanga ), and laggar falcons ( Falco jugger ). The Indian peafowl
288-723: A maximum length of 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) TL and can weigh up to 60 kg (130 lb). These fish have slender bodies, flat bony heads, notably flatter than in the genus Silurus , and broad, terminal mouths with four pairs of barbels . They also have large accessory breathing organs composed of modified gill arches. Also, only the pectoral fins have spines. It is a nocturnal fish like many catfish. It feeds on living, as well as dead, animal matter (such as insects , plankton , snails , crabs , shrimp , other invertebrates , birds , reptiles , amphibians , small mammals , other fishes, and eggs ) and plant matter such as fruit and seeds . Because of its wide mouth, it
336-410: Is a major opium production and consumption area. P. cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high-quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields. Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent
384-555: Is a resident breeder in the Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan) . It can be seen sitting on khejri or pipal trees in villages or Deblina. The natural vegetation of this dry area is classified as northwestern thorn scrub forest (i.e. small, loosely-scattered patches of greenery). The densities and sizes of these green patches increase from west to east, following an increase in rainfall. The primary vegetation of
432-419: Is able to swallow relatively large prey whole. It has been known to take large waterbirds such as the common moorhen . It is also able to crawl on dry ground to escape drying pools. Further, it is able to survive in shallow mud for long periods of time, between rainy seasons. African catfish sometimes produce loud croaking sounds, not unlike the voice of the crow . Spawning mostly takes place at night in
480-710: Is also known as the Lavanavari or Lavanavati, which means "salt river" in Sanskrit , due to the high salinity of its water. The Luni River basin is 37,363 km, which includes all or part of the Ajmer , Barmer , Jalore , Jodhpur , Nagaur , Pali and Sirohi districts of Rajasthan and the Banaskantha and Patan districts of northern Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri , Mithri, Bandi , Khari , Jawai , Guhiya and Sagi from
528-507: Is called Luni. In 1892, Maharaja Jaswant Singh II of Jodhpur constructed 0 in Pichiyak village between Bilara and Bhawi of Jodhpur district . It is one of the largest artificial lakes in India and irrigates more than 12,000 acres (49 km). It is one of the internal drainage rivers in India; it does not meet with Arabian Sea . It is drained before it reaches the Arabian Sea. The Luni
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#1733085842037576-577: Is one of the most heavily populated desert areas in the world with the main occupations of its inhabitants being agriculture and animal husbandry. Agricultural production is mainly from kharif crops , which are grown in the summer season and seeded in June and July. These are then harvested in September and October and include bajra , pulses such as guar , jowar ( Sorghum vulgare ), maize ( zea mays ), sesame and groundnuts . The Thar region of Rajasthan
624-520: Is the world's 18th-largest desert , and the world's 9th-largest hot subtropical desert . About 85% of the Thar Desert is in India, and about 15% is in Pakistan. The Thar Desert is about 4.56% of the total geographical area of India. More than 60% of the desert lies in the Indian state of Rajasthan ; the portion in India also extends into Gujarat , Punjab , and Haryana . The portion in Pakistan extends into
672-570: The African sharptooth catfish in Africa started in the early 1970s in Central and Western Africa , as it was realized to be a very suitable species for aquaculture , as: Clarias gariepinus could be easily crossed with Heterobranchus longifillis to get the so-called hybrid Hetero-clarias . This cross has advantages over C. gariepinus : A major disadvantage of the Hetero-clarias hybrid, though,
720-526: The Bhatti rulers of Multhan because they wanted to end the slave raids that were made by the Turkic ruler of Ghazni, but the alliance was broken apart by Alp Tigin in 977 CE. Bhati dominions continued to shift southwards: they ruled Multan, then finally got pushed into Cholistan and Jaisalmer, where Rawal Devaraja built Dera Rawal / Derawar . Jaisalmer was founded as the new capital in 1156 by Maharawal Jaisal Singh and
768-607: The Indian section of the Thar to Pakistani Thar, whilst thousands of Hindu families also migrated from Pakistani Thar to the Indian section. Clarias gariepinus Clarias gariepinus or African sharptooth catfish is a species of catfish of the family Clariidae , the airbreathing catfishes . They are found throughout Africa and the Middle East , and live in freshwater lakes , rivers , and swamps , as well as human-made habitats, such as oxidation ponds or even urban sewage systems . The African sharptooth catfish
816-542: The Luni river as the river flows on a shallow bed and the riverbank soil is easily flattened by the rain water. The worst flood happened in 2006, when the desert region received heavy rain. The water levels rose to 15–25 feet submerging the surrounding region. The 2006 flash floods caused water levels to rise to as high as 15–25 feet submerging many parts along the river in the Barmer district . A large number of people and animals died in
864-479: The Rann of Kutch, traversing a total of 495 km. In spite of the high salinity , it is a major river in the region and serves as a primary source of irrigation. The Luni is not saline until it reaches Balotra , where high salt content in the soil impacts the river. The Luni may have been the southern portion of the historic Ghaggar-Hakra river channel. The Jawai , Sukri , Guhiya , Bandi and Jojari rivers are
912-678: The Thar Desert include the Sambhar , Kuchaman, Didwana , Pachpadra , and Phalodi in Rajasthan and Kharaghoda in Gujarat. These lakes receive and collect rainwater during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season. The salt comes from the weathering of rocks in the region. Lithic tools belonging to the prehistoric Aterian culture of the Maghreb have been discovered in Middle Paleolithic deposits in
960-426: The Thar Desert is composed of trees, shrubs , and perennial herb species, including: The endemic floral species include Calligonum polygonoides , Prosopis cineraria , Acacia nilotica , Tamarix aphylla , and Cenchrus biflorus . The Thar people are the natives of the area. The Thar Desert is the most widely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km . In India,
1008-547: The Thar Desert, more dust deposited into the Arabian Sea , a lowering of the biotic life zones on the Indian subcontinent, and animals responded to this shift in climate with the Javan rusa deer migrating into India. 10,000-8,000 years ago a paleo channel of Ghaggar-Hakra River - identified with the paleo Sarasvati River , after confluence with Sutlej flowed into the Nara river -
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#17330858420371056-473: The Thar Desert. The climate is arid and subtropical. Average temperature varies with season, and extremes can range from near-freezing in the winter to more than 50 °C in the summer months. Average annual rainfall ranges from 100 to 500 mm, and occurs during the short July-to-September southwest monsoon. The desert has both a very dry part (the Marusthali region in the west) and a semidesert part (in
1104-406: The desert area is covered by huge, shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast. The sand is highly mobile due to the strong winds that rise each year before the onset of the monsoon . The Luni River is the only river in the desert. Rainfall is 100 to 500 mm (4 to 20 in) per year, almost all of it between June and September. Saltwater lakes within
1152-533: The desert in large numbers, including the blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra ), chinkara ( Gazella bennettii ), and Indian wild ass ( Equus hemionus khur ) in the Rann of Kutch . This may be partly because they are well adapted to this environment: they are smaller than similar animals that live in other environments, and they are mainly nocturnal. It may also be because grasslands in this region have not been transformed into cropland as fast as in other regions, and because
1200-502: The desert seeking adventure on camels for one to several days. This ecotourism industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night-style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks, tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar Desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer, as well as employment for many camel trekkers in
1248-585: The desert villages nearby. People from various parts of the world come to see the Pushkar ka Mela (Pushkar Fair) and oases. The government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955 and 1956 in the Jaisalmer area, Oil India Limited discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin . The Desert National Park in Jaisalmer district has a collection of 180-million-year- old animal and plant fossils. Jaisalmer State 's historical foundations are in
1296-528: The dried-up Harkra become an intermittent river, and the urban Harappan civilisation declined, becoming localized in smaller agricultural communities. The northeastern part of the Thar Desert lies between the Aravalli Hills . The desert stretches to Punjab and Haryana in the north, to the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast, and to the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and northwest. Much of
1344-469: The east) that has fewer sand dunes and slightly more precipitation. The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year, so it is prone to wind erosion . High-velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some of it on neighboring fertile lands, and causing sand dunes within the desert to shift. To counteract this problem, sand dunes are stabilised by first erecting micro windbreak barriers with scrub material and then by afforestation of
1392-458: The economic decline, but the kingdom nevertheless became impoverished. To make matters worse, there was a severe drought and a resulting famine from 1895 to 1900, during the reign of Maharawal Salivahan Singh, which caused the widespread loss of the livestock upon which the increasingly agriculturally based kingdom had come to rely. In 1965 and 1971, population exchanges took place in the Thar between India and Pakistan; 3,500 Muslims shifted from
1440-590: The enforcement of green norms, raising awareness about the issue, and pushing for compensation to farmers whose crops have been damaged due to contaminated water. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) and the Rajasthan High Court have played significant roles in addressing the pollution problem of the Luni River. The NGT, in response to a public interest litigation, declared the Luni water unfit for irrigation due to pollution from textile dyeing units. The court ordered
1488-451: The failure to achieve zero liquid discharge (ZLD) remain areas of concern. The fish diversity assessment of Luni river led by ICAR-National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow from October, 2018 - November, 2019 reported the occurrence of 27 species belonging to 22 genera, dominated by Cyprinids. The highest fish diversity of 12 species was reported in Samdhari and Gandhav. In this study,
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1536-423: The female's tail to distribute the eggs over a wide area. The pair usually rests after mating (from seconds up to several minutes) and then resumes mating. Parental care for ensuring the survival of the catfish offspring is absent except by the careful choice of a suitable site. Development of eggs and larvae is rapid, and the larvae are capable of swimming within 48–72 hours after fertilization . The rearing of
1584-458: The flood. In 2010, another flood occurred but there were less casualties. The degradation of the Luni River's water quality is primarily attributed to the discharge of hazardous pollutants by textile industries located along its banks, including Balotra , Bithuja , Jasol , and Pali . The pollution has resulted in the loss of the river's natural flow, transforming freshwater into saline water as it reaches Balotra. This pollution not only affects
1632-557: The ice in Tibet reflected at least four times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes , which further cooled overlying atmosphere at that time. This impacted the regional climate. Without the thermal low pressure caused by the heating, there was no monsoon over the Indian subcontinent . This lack of monsoon caused extensive rainfall over the Sahara , expansion of
1680-416: The inhabitants comprise Hindus , Jains , Sikhs , and Muslims . In Pakistan, inhabitants include both Muslims and Hindus. About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan lives in the Thar Desert. The main occupations of the inhabitants are agriculture and animal husbandry . Jodhpur , the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone at the desert's perimeter. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are
1728-531: The large empire ruled by the Bhati dynasty. The empire stretched from what is now Ghazni in modern-day Afghanistan to what is Sialkot , Lahore and Rawalpindi in modern-day Pakistan to the region that is Bhatinda and Hanumangarh in modern-day India. The empire crumbled over time because of continuous invasions from central Asia. According to Satish Chandra, the Hindu Shahis of Afghanistan made an alliance with
1776-433: The largest cities located entirely in the desert. In the true desert areas, the only sources of water for animals or humans are small, scattered ponds - some that are natural ( tobas ) and some that are human-made ( johads ). The persistence of water scarcity heavily influences life in all areas of the Thar, prompting many inhabitants to adopt a nomadic lifestyle. Most of the permanent human settlements are located near
1824-561: The left and the Jojari from the right. The Luni River begins near Ajmer in the Pushkar valley of the western Aravalli Range at an elevation of about 550m. At this point, the river is also known as the Sagarmati. The river then flows in the southwest direction through the hills and plains of the Marwar region in Rajasthan. The river flows south-west and enters the Thar Desert before dissipating into
1872-420: The main tributaries of Luni river. The Jojari is the only tributary that merges to the right-bank of the river while other 10 tributaries reach its left bank. All the tributaries except Jojari originates from the Aravalli Range . The dams in Luni river are: The two major irrigation projects on Luni river are SardarSamand and Jawai dam. Sardar Samand dam was constructed in 1905. Flash floods have occurred in
1920-544: The provinces of Sindh and Punjab (the portion in the latter province is referred to as the Cholistan Desert ). The Indo-Gangetic Plain lies to the north, west and northeast of the Thar desert, the Rann of Kutch lies to its south, and the Aravali Range borders the desert to the east. The most recent paleontological discovery in 2023 from the Thar Desert in India, dating back to 167 million years ago, pertains to
1968-399: The river itself but also contaminates groundwater and surface water bodies in the surrounding areas. Several individuals and organizations have been actively involved in combating the pollution of the Luni River. The 'Pradushan Niwaran and Paryavarn Sanrakshan Samiti,' a voluntary organization, has been at the forefront of the fight against river pollution. Their efforts include advocating for
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2016-405: The shallow, inundated areas of the rivers , lakes and streams. Courtship is preceded by highly aggressive encounters between males . Courtship and mating takes place in shallow waters between isolated pairs of males and females . The male lies in a U-shape curved around the head of the female, held for several seconds . A batch of milt and eggs is released followed by a vigorous swish of
2064-488: The shutdown of around 800 textile units for violating green norms, and subsequent assessments were conducted to monitor the situation. Despite legal interventions and efforts by various stakeholders, challenges persist in addressing the pollution of the Luni River. Textile industries continue to discharge pollutants into the river, and encroachments in the catchment area exacerbate the problem. The lack of full compliance with environmental quality standards by some industries and
2112-467: The state took its name from the capital. On 11 December 1818 Jaisalmer became a British protectorate through the Rajputana Agency . Because the kingdom's main source of income had long been levies on caravans , its economy suffered after Bombay became a major port, and sea trade largely replaced trade along the traditional land routes. Maharawals Ranjit Singh and Bairi Sal Singh tried to reverse
2160-529: The treated dunes—planting the seedlings of shrubs (such as phog , senna , and castor oil plant ) and trees (such as gum acacia , Prosopis juliflora , and lebbek tree ). The 649-km-long Indira Gandhi Canal brings fresh water to the Thar Desert. It was built to halt any spreading of the desert into fertile areas. There are several protected areas in the Thar Desert: Some wildlife species that are fast vanishing in other parts of India are found in
2208-525: The two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar Desert. Much of it tastes sour due to dissolved minerals. Potable water is mostly available only deep underground. When wells are dug that happen to yield sweet tasting water, people tend to settle near them, but such wells are difficult and dangerous to dig, sometimes claiming the lives of the well-diggers. Crowded housing conditions are common in some areas. The Thar
2256-549: The wide distribution of Invasive Fish Species such as African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) and Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) were also reported from the river Luni. Thar Desert The Thar Desert , also known as the Great Indian Desert , is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent that covers an area of 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi) in India and Pakistan . It
2304-401: Was introduced all over the world in the early 1980s for aquaculture purposes, so is found in countries far outside its natural habitat, such as Brazil , Vietnam , Indonesia , and India . In countries where native species of Clarias occur, such as Indonesia, the sharptooth catfish may be distinguished; In Indonesia, it is referred to as lele dumbo . The African sharptooth catfish is
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