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43-412: Lassallism or Lassalleanism is the strategy of the pursuit of socialism through the use of the state . This school of thought developed from German jurist and socialist activist Ferdinand Lassalle . This school of thought diverged from the route to socialism propounded by Karl Marx . Marx advocated a revolutionary strategy and focused on organizing through workers' organizations. Lassalle, on

86-423: A business is going to compete, what its goals should be, and what policies will be needed to carry out those goals" and the "...combination of the ends (goals) for which the firm is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there." Henry Mintzberg described five definitions of strategy in 1998: Complexity theorists define strategy as the unfolding of the internal and external aspects of

129-636: A conceptual framework capable of harmonizing emergent and deliberate strategies. Within complexity approaches, the term "strategy" is intricately linked to action but contrasts programmed action. Complexity theorists view programs merely as predetermined sequences effective in highly ordered and less chaotic environments. Conversely, strategy emerges from a simultaneous examination of determined conditions (order) and uncertainties (disorder) that drive action. Complexity theory posits that strategy involves execution, encompasses control and emergence, scrutinizes both internal and external organizational aspects, and can take

172-635: A doctrine that will ensure long-term success if followed faithfully." Subordinating the political point of view to the military would be absurd, for it is policy that has created war...Policy is the guiding intelligence, and war only the instrument, not vice-versa. In military theory, strategy is "the utilization during both peace and war, of all of the nation's forces, through large scale, long-range planning and development, to ensure security and victory" ( Random House Dictionary ). The father of Western modern strategic study , Carl von Clausewitz , defined military strategy as "the employment of battles to gain

215-599: A larger category; not all patterns of characteristics will be found in all cases. In recent times, the major conflicts of the nineteenth century and the two World Wars have spurred strategic thinkers such as Mahan , Corbett , Giulio Douhet , Liddell Hart and, later, André Beaufre . The Cold War with its danger of degenerating into a nuclear war produced an expansion of the discipline, with authors like Bernard Brodie , Michael Howard , Raymond Aron , Lucien Poirier , Lawrence Freedman , Colin Gray , and many others. The subject

258-526: A pattern in a stream of decisions to contrast with a view of strategy as planning, while Henrik von Scheel defines the essence of strategy as the activities to deliver a unique mix of value – choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than rivals. while Max McKeown (2011) argues that "strategy is about shaping the future " and is the human attempt to get to "desirable ends with available means". Vladimir Kvint defines strategy as "a system of finding, formulating, and developing

301-605: A set of attraction basins establishing operational and regenerative capabilities. Hence, one of the primary roles of strategists is to identify "human attractors" and assess their impacts on organizational dynamics. According to the theory of Symbiotic Dynamics, both leaders and the technical system can act as attractors, directly influencing organizational dynamics and responses to external disruptions. Terra and Passador further assert that while producing, organizations contribute to environmental entropy, potentially leading to abrupt ruptures and collapses within their subsystems, even within

344-555: A strategic problem. The first is related to environmental factors, and the second focuses on the organizational context (Mukherji and Hurtado, 2001). These two sources summarize three dimensions originally proposed by Ansoff and Hayes (1981). According to them, a strategic problem arises from analysis of internal and external issues, the processes to solve them, and the variables involved. In Terra and Passador's conceptualization, organizations and their surrounding systems are closely linked, so their survival depends on each other. Therefore,

387-479: A strategy should combine proactive and reactive approaches, which means recognizing the organization’s impact on the environment and acting to minimize harm while adapting to new demands. The strategy should also align internal and external aspects of the organization and include all related entities. This helps build a complex socio-economic system where the organization is part of a sustainable ecosystem. Complexity science, as articulated by R. D. Stacey, represents

430-440: A type of problem solving in 2011. He wrote that good strategy has an underlying structure he called a kernel . The kernel has three parts: 1) A diagnosis that defines or explains the nature of the challenge; 2) A guiding policy for dealing with the challenge; and 3) Coherent actions designed to carry out the guiding policy. President Kennedy illustrated these three elements of strategy in his Cuban Missile Crisis Address to

473-399: A view consistent with the definition of strategy by Porter and Mintzberg. In contrast, Burnett regards strategy as a plan formulated through methodology in which strategic problem encompasses six tasks: goal formulation, environmental analysis, strategy formulation, strategy evaluation, strategy implementation, and strategy control. The literature identifies two main sources for defining

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516-485: Is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty . In the sense of the " art of the general", which included several subsets of skills including military tactics , siegecraft , logistics etc., the term came into use in the 6th century C.E. in Eastern Roman terminology, and was translated into Western vernacular languages only in the 18th century. From then until

559-507: Is a government's plan to use the instruments of national power to neutralize terrorists, their organizations, and their networks in order to render them incapable of using violence to instill fear and to coerce the government or its citizens to react in accordance with the terrorists' goals. The United States has had several such strategies in the past, including the United States National Strategy for Counterterrorism (2018);

602-618: Is taught in Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Europe. In Nigeria, Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, University of Ibadan, Covenant University and in the Conflict, Peace and Strategic Studies at Afe Babalola University Nigeria and Nassarawa State University Keffi offers Security and Strategic Studies at Masters and Ph.D. Level. In South Africa, the Faculty of Military Science at

645-648: The Royal Military College in Canada . In Chile , it is taught in the National Academy of Political and Strategic Studies, Ministry of Defense. In the U.S., the subject is taught in many state, private, and military universities, including the University of Missouri , United States Military Academy , United States Air Force Academy , Georgetown University , Johns Hopkins University , Missouri State University ,

688-896: The University of Aberdeen , the University of Exeter , the University of Hull , King's College London , and the University of Leeds (all in the United Kingdom), University of Rome III , Università degli Studi di Milano , University of Turin (all of the three in Italy), the University of Granada (in Spain), the National Defence University (in Finland), the Charles University in Prague , Netherlands Defence College Breda (the Netherlands), and

731-528: The University of Texas at El Paso , Norwich University , Temple University , the U.S. Army War College , Air University's Air War College , U.S. Naval War College , Marine Corps War College , and the National Defense University . In Asia and the Pacific, it is also taught in several countries. In Bangladesh , it is taught at the national universities, Bangladesh University of Professionals ,

774-644: The Université Paris 13 Nord SciencesPo (in France), University College Cork (Ireland), University of Warsaw (Poland). In the Americas, it is taught in Chile , Canada , Brazil , Mexico , United States . In Brazil, it is taught at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul , Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro , and Universidade Federal Fluminense . In Canada, it is taught in University of Calgary and

817-411: The "art of creating power." Eastern military philosophy dates back much further, with examples such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu dated around 500 B.C. Because counterterrorism involves the synchronized efforts of numerous competing bureaucratic entities, national governments frequently create overarching counterterrorism strategies at the national level. A national counterterrorism strategy

860-645: The 1864 death of Lassalle. The General German Workers' Association would be a precursor to the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The SPD aimed for revolution and threatened the German political status quo, which induced Otto von Bismarck to introduce the first social reforms ( State Socialism ) for workers in Imperial Germany while suppressing the SPD with laws. The SPD exercised a fundamental opposition to

903-422: The 20th century, the word "strategy" came to denote "a comprehensive way to try to pursue political ends, including the threat or actual use of force, in a dialectic of wills" in a military conflict , in which both adversaries interact. Strategy is important because the resources available to achieve goals are usually limited. Strategy generally involves setting goals and priorities, determining actions to achieve

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946-550: The Nation of 22 October 1962: Rumelt wrote in 2011 that three important aspects of strategy include "premeditation, the anticipation of others' behavior, and the purposeful design of coordinated actions." He described strategy as solving a design problem, with trade-offs among various elements that must be arranged, adjusted and coordinated, rather than a plan or choice. Strategy typically involves two major processes: formulation and implementation . Formulation involves analyzing

989-788: The National Defense University, and the military academies. In Australia, it is taught in the Australian National University . In New Zealand, it is taught at Victoria University of Wellington . In Singapore, the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore . In Malaysia, University of Malaya . In India , Deen Dyal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University, Savitribai Phule Pune University , University of Allahabad , National Defence Academy , School of International Relations and Strategic Studies SIRSS, University of Mumbai, Rashtriya Raksha university. In Pakistan ,

1032-696: The Obama-era National Strategy for Counterterrorism (2011); and the National Strategy for Combatting Terrorism (2003). There have also been a number of ancillary or supporting plans, such as the 2014 Strategy to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant , and the 2016 Strategic Implementation Plan for Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States . Similarly,

1075-516: The United Kingdom's counterterrorism strategy, CONTEST , seeks "to reduce the risk to the UK and its citizens and interests overseas from terrorism, so that people can go about their lives freely and with confidence." The essence of formulating competitive strategy is relating a company to its environment. Modern business strategy emerged as a field of study and practice in the 1960s; prior to that time,

1118-679: The University of Stellenbosch provides a number of courses in strategic studies from the undergraduate to PhD level. The Faculty of Military Science, co-located at the South African Military Academy in Saldanha, is also involved in the teaching of the discipline at the South African Defence and War Colleges. In Europe, the subject is taught at the University of St Andrews , the University of Reading , Aberystwyth University ,

1161-507: The actions of other players. Strategic studies The academic foundations of the subject began with classic texts initially from the Orient such as Sun Tzu ’s Art of War and went on to gain a European focus with Carl von Clausewitz ’s On War . Like Clausewitz, many academics in this field reject monocausal theories and hypotheses that reduce the study of conflict to one independent variable and one dependent variable. Already in

1204-426: The basic requirements for strategy development include, among other factors: 1) extensive knowledge about the environment, market and competitors; 2) ability to examine this knowledge as an interactive dynamic system; and 3) the imagination and logic to choose between specific alternatives. Henderson wrote that strategy was valuable because of: "finite resources, uncertainty about an adversary's capability and intentions;

1247-439: The demands arising from these interactions. To achieve this, organizations need to incorporate all interconnected systems into their decision-making processes, enabling the envisioning of complex socio-economic systems where they integrate in a stable and sustainable manner. This blend of proactivity and reactivity is fundamental to ensure the survival of the organization itself. Professor Richard P. Rumelt described strategy as

1290-446: The end of war." B. H. Liddell Hart 's definition put less emphasis on battles, defining strategy as "the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy". Hence, both gave the pre-eminence to political aims over military goals. U.S. Naval War College instructor Andrew Wilson defined strategy as the "process by which political purpose is translated into military action." Lawrence Freedman defined strategy as

1333-413: The environment or situation, making a diagnosis, and developing guiding policies. It includes such activities as strategic planning and strategic thinking . Implementation refers to the action plans taken to achieve the goals established by the guiding policy. Bruce Henderson wrote in 1981 that: "Strategy depends upon the ability to foresee future consequences of present initiatives." He wrote that

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1376-671: The form of maneuvers or any other act or process. The works of Stacey stand as pioneering efforts in applying complexity principles to the field of strategy. This author applied self-organization and chaos principles to describe strategy, organizational change dynamics, and learning. Their propositions advocate for strategy approached through choices and the evolutionary process of competitive selection. In this context, corrections of anomalies occur through actions involving negative feedback, while innovation and continuous change stem from actions guided by positive feedback. Dynamically, complexity in strategic management can be elucidated through

1419-414: The goals, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resources). Strategy can be intended or can emerge as a pattern of activity as the organization adapts to its environment or competes. It involves activities such as strategic planning and strategic thinking . Henry Mintzberg from McGill University defined strategy as

1462-868: The government until the 1890s when they supported the social reforms in the domestic policies by Arthur von Posadowsky-Wehner . The tension between Lassallism and Marxism in the United States would receive later attention in Philip S. Foner 's History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Volume II and in David Caute's The Left in Europe. Caute contended that the Marxists in Europe gained advantage relative to Lassallism with Lassalle's passing in 1864. Strategy Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία stratēgia , "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship" )

1505-403: The irreversible commitment of resources; necessity of coordinating action over time and distance; uncertainty about control of the initiative; and the nature of adversaries' mutual perceptions of each other." In game theory , a player 's strategy is any of the options that the player would choose in a specific setting. Any optimal outcomes they receive depend not only on their actions but also,

1548-406: The late eighteenth century, a colourful mathematician named Dietrich Heinrich von Bülow attempted to establish mathematical formulae for the conduct of war. Carl von Clausewitz rejected Bülow’s approach and his popular claim that warfare could be reduced to positivist, teachable principles of war. Instead of formulae, we find Clausewitz stressing, time and again, that the whole purpose of educating

1591-457: The military commander is not to give him a series of answers for the task he will face (the complexities of which cannot be foreseen), but to educate him about different aspects of what will face him so as to let him evaluate the situation for himself, and develop his own strategy. Strategic thinkers on the whole will search for recurrent patterns, which in themselves cannot predict the characteristics of any individual case even if it doubtless fits

1634-429: The model of "Symbiotic Dynamics" by Terra and Passador. This model conceives the social organization of production as an interplay between two distinct systems existing in a symbiotic relationship while interconnected with the external environment. The organization's social network acts as a self-referential entity controlling the organization's life, while its technical structure resembles a purposeful "machine" supplying

1677-429: The organization that results in actions in a socio-economic context. Crouch in 1998 defined the strategic problem as maintaining of flexible relationships that range from intense competition to harmonious cooperation among different players in a changing market. Despite being open to the idea of cooperation between players, this approach still considers that strategy is determined by market and organizational structure,

1720-444: The organizations themselves. Given this issue, the authors conclude that organizations intervening to maintain the environment's stability within suitable parameters for survival tend to exhibit greater longevity. The theory of Symbiotic Dynamics posits that organizations must acknowledge their impact on the external environment (markets, society, and the environment) and act systematically to reduce their degradation while adapting to

1763-473: The other hand, emphasized pursuing socialism through electoral institutions, particularly through universal suffrage . Lassalle focused on organizing through engagement with the state via political parties . Opponents of Lassalle critiqued his socialism as state socialism . The practice of Lassallism carried forward in the General German Workers' Association (ADAV), formed in 1863, and after

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1806-401: The social system by processing resources. These intertwined structures exchange disturbances and residues while interacting with the external world through their openness. Essentially, as the organization produces itself, it also hetero-produces, surviving through energy and resource flows across its subsystems. This dynamic has strategic implications, governing organizational dynamics through

1849-408: The words "strategy" and "competition" rarely appeared in the most prominent management literature. Alfred Chandler wrote in 1962 that: "Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise , and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals." Michael Porter defined strategy in 1980 as the "...broad formula for how

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