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42-637: The term was traditionally used for the Lombard possessions, with the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor distinguishing between "Great Longobardia" (Greek: Μεγάλη Λογγοβαρδία; Latin : Longobardia major ), namely the Kingdom of the Lombards in northern Italy , and "Lesser Longobardia" (Latin: Longobardia minor ), which comprised southern Italy , with the Lombard duchies of Benevento , Spoleto , Salerno and Capua ,

84-503: A relic , which remains the case in modern Catholic and Orthodox regulations (Canon VII), and made a number of decrees on clerical discipline, especially for monks when mixing with women. The papal legates voiced their approval of the restoration of the veneration of icons in no uncertain terms, and the Patriarch sent a full account of the proceedings of the council to Pope Adrian I , who had it translated ( Pope Anastasius III later replaced

126-635: A high degree of skill in transcribing manuscripts. After six years he returned to Sigriano, where he founded an abbey known by the name "of the big settlement" and governed it as abbot . In this position of leadership, he was present at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, and signed its decrees in defense of the veneration of icons . When Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813–820) resumed his iconoclastic warfare, he ordered Theophanes brought to Constantinople. The Emperor tried in vain to induce him to condemn

168-603: A life of virginity. In 779, after the death of his father-in-law, they separated with mutual consent to embrace the religious life. She chose a convent on an island near Constantinople, while he entered the Polychronius Monastery, located in the district of Sigiane (Sigriano), near Cyzicus on the Asian side of the Sea of Marmara . Later, he built a monastery on his own lands on the island of Calonymus (now Calomio ), where he acquired

210-460: A unified form. Theophanes' part of the chronicle covered events from the accession of Diocletian in 284 (which is the point where the chronicle of George Syncellus ends) to the downfall of Michael I Rhangabes in 813. This part of the chronicle is valuable for having preserved the accounts of lost authorities on Byzantine history for the seventh and eighth centuries that would be otherwise have been lost. The work consists of two parts, wherein

252-550: Is only attested from 911 on. In 938 and 956, it also appears united with the thema of Calabria , although the duration of this arrangement is unclear. At any rate, after c. 965, the two themata were permanently united into the new Catepanate of Italy , with the katepano 's seat again at Bari. The Varangian Guard fought as part of the Byzantine army in several campaigns in the area, known to them as Langbardland ; in their Scandinavian homeland, their exploits are commemorated in

294-458: Is particularly valuable beginning with the reign of Justin II (565), as in his work, he then drew upon sources that have not survived his times Theophanes' Chronicle was much used by succeeding chroniclers, and in 873–875 a Latin compilation was made by the papal librarian Anastasius from the chronicles of Nicephorus , George Syncellus, and Theophanes for the use of a deacon named Johannes in

336-776: Is recognized as the last of the first seven ecumenical councils by the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church . In addition, it is also recognized as such by Old Catholics and others. Protestant opinions on it are varied. The Council assembled in 787 AD in Nicaea (site of the First Council of Nicaea ; present-day İznik , Bursa , in Turkey ), to restore the use and veneration of icons (or holy images), which had been suppressed by imperial edict inside

378-479: The Roman Martyrology . At the urgent request of his friend George Syncellus , Theophanes undertook the continuation of Syncellus' Chronicle ( Χρονογραφία , Chronographia), during the years 810 to 815. The language used occupies a place midway between the stiff ecclesiastical and the vernacular Greek. He made use of three main sources: first, material already prepared by Syncellus; second, he probably made

420-529: The Byzantine Empire during the reign of Leo III (717–741). His son, Constantine V (741–775), had held the Council of Hieria to make the suppression official. The Council determined that the honorary veneration ( timētikē proskynēsis ) of icons was permitted, and that the true adoration ( alēthinē latreia ) was reserved for God alone. It further stated that the honor paid to the icon eventually passes over to

462-624: The Italy runestones . Theophanes the Confessor Theophanes the Confessor ( Greek : Θεοφάνης Ὁμολογητής ; c. 759 – 817 or 818) was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy who became a monk and chronicler . He served in the court of Emperor Leo IV the Khazar before taking up the religious life. Theophanes attended the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 and resisted the iconoclasm of Leo V

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504-528: The islands of the Aegean Sea , and Theodora, of whose family nothing is known. His father died when Theophanes was three years old, and the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V (740–775) subsequently saw to the boy's education and upbringing at the imperial court. Theophanes would hold several offices under Leo IV the Khazar. He was married at the age of eighteen, but convinced his wife to lead

546-457: The Armenian , for which he was imprisoned. He died shortly after his release. Theophanes the Confessor, venerated on 12 March in both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church , should not be confused with Theophanes of Nicaea , whose feast is commemorated on 11 October. Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents: Isaac, governor of

588-414: The Byzantine possessions, and the city-states ( Naples , Gaeta and Amalfi ) under Byzantine suzerainty. In its strictest and most technical sense, the name referred to the province ( thema ) which encompassed the modern Italian region of Apulia and parts of Basilicata , with Bari as its capital. Its exact origin and evolution are not entirely clear. After a century of almost complete absence from

630-756: The Frankish arguments. The Libri would thereafter remain unpublished until the Reformation , and the Council was subsequently accepted as the Seventh Ecumenical Council by the Roman Catholic Church . According to the Libri , the ruling of the council against iconoclasm led to "civil war" within the Empire, and other ninth-century iconodule sources condemn clergymen and laymen who remained iconoclasts. The Council, or rather

672-582: The Franks , which enraged the Franks who the Pope was attempting to align himself with. However, the Franks successfully repelled the Byzantine expedition, and Adrian's relations with Charlemagne were restored despite his diplomatic blunder. The Frankish clergy initially rejected the Council at a synod in 794 . Charlemagne supported the composition of the Libri Carolini , which was most likely composed in summer 793 by

714-499: The Prophet of the Islamic religion Muhammad had epilepsy . Attribution: Second Council of Nicaea Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: The Second Council of Nicaea

756-710: The affairs of the Italian peninsula, Byzantium once more began to intervene actively under Basil I (reigned 867–886), whose western policy aimed to clear the Adriatic Sea from Saracen raiders, re-establish Byzantine dominance over Dalmatia , and extend Byzantine control once more over parts of Italy. In this process, Otranto was taken from the Saracens in 873, and in 876 the Byzantines took over Bari , which had been captured from its Saracen rulers in 871 by Louis II of Italy . It

798-500: The bishopric of Krk as "episcopatus in Vegla", the foundation of the bishopric of Osor as "episcopatus in Asparo", and the bishopric of Pićan as "episcopus Pathensis". As the chronicle reports a Dalmatian provincial synod held in the city of Grado . There are only a few translations of the above Acts in the modern languages. There is no up-to-date English monograph on either the council or

840-515: The church, and broke up the assembly. As a result, Irene resorted to a stratagem. Under the pretext of responding to an alleged Arab attack in Asia Minor , the iconoclastic bodyguard was sent away from the capital—then disarmed and disbanded. Tarasios dealt with the episcopal opposition by allowing notoriously iconoclast bishops to retain their positions so long as they made a public admission of error, and also by disguising two eastern monks as envoys of

882-399: The court theologians"; it is also said to be, "bedeviled by inaccurate and in some cases intentionally incorrect translations". Theodulf's judgment was that Irene's aim was to "promote the superstitious adoration of images" through the council. Theodulf cited Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo as iconoclast witnesses. A copy was sent to Pope Adrian, who responded with a refutation of

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924-572: The decorative use of images. In subsequent editions of the Institutes , he cited the Libri Carolini . It is particularly interesting that four Dalmatian bishops are among the signatories of the synod, whose cities were no longer under Byzantine rule. These Dalmatian bishoprics had been dissolved earlier. So the question arises of when these bishoprics were re-established in these medieval Dalmatian cities. The four Dalmatian bishops who signed

966-524: The final defeat of iconoclasm in 843, is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church , and Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine Rite as "The Sunday of the Triumph of Orthodoxy " each year on the first Sunday of Great Lent , the fast that leads up to Pascha (Easter), and again on the Sunday closest to 11 October (the Sunday on or after 8 October). The former celebration commemorates the defeat of iconoclasm, while

1008-444: The first provides a chronological history arranged per annum, and the second contains chronological tables that are regrettably full of inaccuracies. It seems that Theophanes had only prepared the tables, leaving vacant spaces for the proper dates, but that these had been filled out by someone else ( Hugo von Hurter , Nomenclator literarius recentioris I, Innsbruck, 1903, 735). In the chronological first part, in addition to reckoning by

1050-594: The head of the imperial chancellery, Tarasios was appointed successor to the iconoclast Patriarch of Constantinople , Paul IV by Irene. Together they were attempting to solemnize the iconodule reversal of imperial policy with an ecumenical council. Pope Adrian I was invited to participate, and gladly accepted, sending two legates . In 786, the council met in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople . However, soldiers in collusion with iconoclast bishops entered

1092-500: The image venerate in it the reality of what is there represented. The twenty-two canons drawn up in Constantinople also served ecclesiastical reform. Careful maintenance of the ordinances of the earlier councils, knowledge of the scriptures on the part of the clergy, and care for Christian conduct are required, and the desire for a renewal of ecclesiastical life is awakened. The council also decreed that every altar should contain

1134-579: The individual that it represents, thus, veneration of an icon could not be idolatrous as the iconoclasts believed. The iconodule position was not justified by Christological arguments (as in the Council of Hieria), rather, the antiquity of iconodulia and the Incarnation of Christ , which was said to make acceptable the depiction of Christ, were emphasized. The veneration of icons had been banned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and supported by his Council of Hieria (754 AD), which had described itself as

1176-605: The influential Carolingian theologian, Theodulf of Orléans , in Saint Emmeram's Abbey , Regensburg . The main purpose of the work was to rebut the decrees of the Council, especially the "errors of the Greeks". Modern scholarship tends to judge the Latin translation of the Acts , which Theodulf used, to be very poor: "a monument of inadequate translation. Its garbled nature gave rise to outrage among

1218-471: The latter commemorates the council itself. The Papacy did not formally confirm the decrees of the council until 880. Many Protestants who follow the French reformer John Calvin generally agree in rejecting the canons of the Council, which they believe promoted idolatry. He rejected the distinction between veneration ( douleia , proskynēsis ) and adoration ( latreia ) as unbiblical "sophistry" and condemned even

1260-533: The patriarchs of Antioch and Jerusalem , to justify the council's claim to ecumenical status. The Council was again assembled, this time in the symbolic location of Nicaea, the site of the first ecumenical council. The council assembled on 24 September 787 at the Hagia Sophia . It numbered about 350 members; 308 bishops or their representatives signed. Tarasios presided, and seven sessions were held in Nicaea. It

1302-454: The persecution—images of emperors were still allowed by Constantine, which some opponents saw as an attempt to give wider authority to imperial power than to the saints and bishops. Constantine's iconoclastic tendencies were shared by Constantine's son, Leo IV . After the latter's early death, his widow, Irene of Athens , as regent for her son, began its restoration for personal inclination and political considerations. On Christmas Day 784,

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1344-485: The roadside and everywhere, to be revered by all who might see them. For the more they are contemplated, the more they move to fervent memory of their prototypes. Therefore, it is proper to accord to them a fervent and reverent veneration, not, however, the veritable adoration which, according to our faith, belongs to the Divine Being alone—for the honor accorded to the image passes over to its prototype, and whoever venerate

1386-408: The same veneration of icons that had been sanctioned by the council. Theophanes was cast into prison and for two years suffered cruel treatment. After his release, he was banished to Samothrace in 817, where overwhelmed with afflictions, he lived only seventeen days. He is credited with many miracles that occurred after his death, which most likely took place on 12 March, the day he is commemorated in

1428-460: The second half of the ninth century and thus was known to Western Europe. There also survives a further continuation, in six books, of the Chronicle down to the year 961 written by a number of mostly anonymous writers (called Theophanes Continuatus or Scriptores post Theophanem ), who undertook the work at the instructions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus . Theophanes was the first to claim that

1470-462: The seventh ecumenical council. The Council of Hieria was overturned by the Second Council of Nicaea only 33 years later, and has also been rejected by Catholic and Orthodox churches, since none of the five major patriarchs were represented. The emperor's vigorous enforcement of the ban included persecution of those who venerated icons and of monks in general. There were also political overtones to

1512-410: The synod were the following, in order. This suggests that new bishoprics was founded or old (Early Christian) episcopal seats were re-established in this area. The founding of these bishoprics is attested by the 8th century Chronicon Gradense . The chronicle reports the foundation of several Dalmatian bishoprics, such as the bishopric of Rab as "Avoriciensis/Avonciensis ecclesia", the foundation of

1554-486: The translation with a better one). While Adrian's legates were returning from Constantinople to Rome with a copy of the Acts of the Council, the deposed Lombard king Adalgis along with a Byzantine expeditionary force were disembarking in Italy to drive out the Franks . The proceedings of the Council proclaimed the unity of the Byzantine emperor and pope on iconodulia, intentionally neglecting to mention Charlemagne , King of

1596-439: The use of a set of extracts made by Theodore Lector from the works of Socrates Scholasticus , Sozomenus , and Theodoret ; and third, the city chronicle of Constantinople. Cyril Mango has argued that Theophanes contributed but little to the chronicle that bears his name, and that the vast bulk of its contents are the work of Syncellus; on this model, Theophanes' main contribution was to cast Syncellus' rough materials together in

1638-580: The years of the world and the Christian era, Theophanes introduces in tabular form the regnal years of the Roman emperors, of the Persian kings and Arab caliphs, and of the five ecumenical patriarchs, a complex system which sometimes leads to considerable confusion. The first part, though lacking in critical insight and chronological accuracy, greatly surpasses the majority of Byzantine chronicles. Theophanes's Chronicle

1680-558: Was captured in 891. The first reference to Longobardia as a theme dates to precisely this time, but at first it appears that it was administered jointly with other European themata of the Byzantine Empire: in 891 the first known strategos (military governor) of Longobardia, Symbatikios, was also governor of Macedonia , Thrace and Cephallenia, while his successor George administered Longobardia jointly with its parent thema , Cephallenia. A dedicated strategos solely for Longobardia

1722-456: Was determined that As the sacred and life-giving cross is everywhere set up as a symbol, so also should the images of Jesus Christ , the Virgin Mary , the holy angels , as well as those of the saints and other pious and holy men be embodied in the manufacture of sacred vessels, tapestries, vestments, etc., and exhibited on the walls of churches, in the homes, and in all conspicuous places, by

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1764-546: Was probably at this juncture that the foundations of the later theme were laid, perhaps in the form of a subordinate division ( turma ) of the thema of Cephallenia . The campaigns of Nikephoros Phokas the Elder in the mid-880s and of his successors greatly expanded the area under Byzantine control, which came to include all of Calabria , Apulia, and the Basilicata. Even Benevento , the centre of Lombard power in southern Italy,

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