75-512: In English common law , real property , real estate , immovable property or, solely in the US and Canada, realty , refers to parcels of land and any associated structures which are the property of a person. For a structure (also called an improvement or fixture ) to be considered part of the real property, it must be integrated with or affixed to the land. This includes crops, buildings, machinery, wells, dams, ponds, mines, canals, and roads. The term
150-566: A civil law system, it has no comprehensive codification . However, most of its criminal law has been codified from its common law origins, in the interests both of certainty and of ease of prosecution. For the time being, murder remains a common law crime rather than a statutory offence. Although Scotland and Northern Ireland form part of the United Kingdom and share Westminster as a primary legislature, they have separate legal systems outside English law. International treaties such as
225-520: A declaration . In this context, civil law is the system of codified law that is prevalent in Europe. Civil law is founded on the ideas of Roman law . By contrast, English law is the archetypal common law jurisdiction, built upon case law . In this context, "common law" means the judge-made law of the King's Bench ; whereas equity is the judge-made law of the (now-defunct) Court of Chancery . Equity
300-439: A worldwide view of the subject . You may improve this article , discuss the issue on the talk page , or create a new article , as appropriate. ( August 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) In surveying and property law , a land description or legal description is a written statement that delineates the boundaries of a piece of real property . In the written transfer of real property, it
375-401: A JTWROS deed in equal shares, so each tenant must own an equal share of the property regardless of any contribution to the purchase price. If the property is someday sold or subdivided, the proceeds must be distributed equally with no credits given for any excess that any one co-owner may have contributed to purchase the property. The death of a co-owner of tenants in common (TIC) deed will have
450-499: A common law, not a civil law system. In other words, no comprehensive codification of the law has taken place and judicial precedents are binding as opposed to persuasive. This may be a legacy of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, when a number of legal concepts and institutions from Norman law were introduced to England. In the early centuries of English common law, the justices and judges were responsible for adapting
525-465: A defined rural community. The survey of a township was essentially a subdivision survey, because the plan of the township was registered and the lots (sometimes called sections) were numbered. The description of a whole lot for legal purposes is complete in the identification of the township and the lot within the township. A legal land description in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta would be defined by
600-644: A devolved parliament (the Senedd) , any legislation it passes must adhere to circumscribed subjects under the Government of Wales Act 2006 , to other legislation of the British Parliament , or to any Order in Council given under the authority of the 2006 Act. Any reference to England in legislation between 1746 and 1967 is deemed to include Wales. As to later legislation, any application to Wales must be expressed under
675-495: A farm owner in New Jersey employed several migrant workers who lived on the property during the harvest season. The Supreme Court of New Jersey held that the owner was not entitled to exclude social services and legal counsel from entering the property to provide service to the migrant workers residing on the property. Historically, a landowner had the absolute right to use his property in any way he wished, as long as he did not harm
750-406: A gray area between personal and real property, and may be treated as either according to jurisdiction or circumstance. Bethell (1998) contains much information on the historical evolution of real property and property rights. Real property is immobile. Owners cannot move their land to a better location, such as another city, for sale. Thus the fixed location of a parcel of land directly affects, and
825-455: A heritable portion of the estate in proportion to his ownership interest which is presumed to be equal among all tenants unless otherwise stated in the transfer deed . However, if TIC property is sold or subdivided, in some States, Provinces, etc., a credit can be automatically made for unequal contributions to the purchase price (unlike a partition of a JTWROS deed). Real property may be owned jointly with several tenants, through devices such as
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#1733093360974900-400: A joint tenancy with rights of survivorship deed or JTWROS, the death of one tenant means that the surviving tenants become the sole owners of the estate. Nothing passes to the heirs of the deceased tenant. In some jurisdictions, the specific words "with right of survivorship" must be used, or the tenancy will assume to be tenants in common without rights of survivorship. The co-owners always take
975-445: A matter for the royal courts. Laws governing the conveyance of land and that of movable personal property then developed along different paths. In modern legal systems derived from English common law, the classification of property as real or personal may vary somewhat according to jurisdiction or, even within jurisdictions, according to purpose, as in defining whether and how the property may be taxed. Houseboats , for example, occupy
1050-498: A new mansion. In one case, a homeowner directed the executor of her estate to destroy her historic home after her death. The Missouri court held that it would violate public policy to allow the destruction of the home. In the law of almost every country, the state is the ultimate owner of all land under its jurisdiction, because it is the sovereign , or supreme lawmaking authority. Physical and corporate persons do not have allodial title ; they do not own land but only enjoy estates in
1125-742: A principle of distinct English and Welsh, Scottish or Northern Irish law, as in Donoghue v Stevenson , a Scots case that forms the basis of the UK's law of negligence . Unlike Scotland and Northern Ireland , Wales is not a separate jurisdiction within the United Kingdom . The customary laws of Wales within the Kingdom of England were abolished by King Henry VIII 's Laws in Wales Acts , which brought Wales into legal conformity with England. While Wales now has
1200-512: A series of documents) and does away with the conveyancing costs of such searches. The State guarantees title and is usually supported by a compensation scheme for those who lose their title due to the State's operation. It has been in practice in all Australian states and New Zealand since between 1858 and 1875, has more recently been extended to strata title , and has been adopted by many states, provinces and countries, and in modified form in 9 states of
1275-406: Is independent , and legal principles like fairness , equality before the law , and the right to a fair trial are foundational to the system. Although the common law has, historically, been the foundation and prime source of English law, the most authoritative law is statutory legislation , which comprises Acts of Parliament , regulations and by-laws . In the absence of any statutory law,
1350-502: Is a major determinant of, its value. However, products of the land, such as minerals and crops, can be transported. Changes that take place nearby will directly affect the real property's value. Real property is vulnerable to externalities due to its immobile nature. External factors outside of the real property will affect the value of the real property, for example, the noises that neighboring people and construction sites produce. A location of desired resources will draw attention to
1425-695: Is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which put the Welsh language on an equal footing with the English language in Wales with regard to the public sector. Welsh may also be spoken in Welsh courts. There have been calls from both Welsh academics and politicians for a separate Welsh justice system . Further reading Land description [REDACTED] The examples and perspective in this article may not represent
1500-507: Is concerned mainly with trusts and equitable remedies . Equity generally operates in accordance with the principles known as the " maxims of equity ". The reforming Judicature Acts of the 1880s amalgamated the courts into one Supreme Court of Judicature which was directed to administer both law and equity. The neo-Gothic Royal Courts of Justice in The Strand, London, were built shortly afterwards to celebrate these reforms. Public law
1575-409: Is historic, arising from the now-discontinued form of action , which distinguished between real property disputes and personal property disputes. Personal property, or personalty, was, and continues to be, all property that is not real property. In countries with personal ownership of real property, civil law protects the status of real property in real-estate markets, where estate agents work in
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#17330933609741650-536: Is labelled as such while land outside the townsite is labelled as being in New Westminster District. The Main subdivisions are District Lots that represent parcel sales to settlers mostly in the time from 1860-1890. District lots are numbered from DL1 to over DL3,000. These District Lots are still represented on the cadastral maps of British Columbia. Later these lots would be subdivided to form blocks and residential lots. A typical address would thus indicate
1725-405: Is mitigated by more frequent and affordable maintenance and improvements. Starting in the 1960s, as part of the emerging field of law and economics , economists and legal scholars began to study the property rights enjoyed by tenants under the various estates and the economic benefits and costs of the various estates. This resulted in a much-improved understanding of the: For an introduction to
1800-411: Is the law governing relationships between individuals and the state . Private law encompasses relationships between private individuals and other private entities (but may also cover "private" relationships between the government and private entities). A remedy is "the means given by law for the recovery of a right , or of compensation for its infringement". Most remedies are available only from
1875-433: Is transferred can be regulated to avoid fraud, uncertainty, or other legal problems. An owner has a right to exclude any other person from his property. This has been described by the U.S. Supreme Court "as one of the most essential sticks" in the bundle. In general, the owner of a tract of land may prevent anyone else from entering upon it. This right is enforced by the tort of trespass . Some exceptions apply: for example,
1950-457: Is unified throughout England and Wales . This is different from Northern Ireland , for example, which did not cease to be a distinct jurisdiction when its legislature was suspended (see Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972 ). A major difference is use of the Welsh language , as laws concerning it apply in Wales and not in the rest of the United Kingdom . The Welsh Language Act 1993
2025-473: Is universally required that the instrument of conveyance ( deed ) include a written description of the property. Legal land description [ edit ] Canada [ edit ] In many parts of Canada the original subdivision of crown land was done by township surveys. Different sizes of townships have been used (e.g. Québec's irregularly shaped cantons and Ontario's concession townships), but all were designed to provide rectangular farm lots within
2100-461: Is usually determined by the language of the deed , lease , bill of sale , will , land grant , etc., through which the estate was acquired. Estates are distinguished by the varying property rights that vest in each and determine the duration and transferability of the various estates. A party enjoying an estate is called a "tenant". Some important types of estates in the land include: A tenant enjoying an undivided estate in some property after
2175-516: The North Carolina Law Review theorised that English common law was influenced by medieval Islamic law . Makdisi drew comparisons between the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt " and the "Islamic Aqd ", the "English assize of novel disseisin " (a petty assize adopted in the 1166 at the Assizes of Clarendon) and the "Islamic Istihqaq ", and the "English jury " and
2250-767: The res ipsa loquitur doctrine. Jurisdictions that have kept to the common law may incorporate modern legal developments from England, and English decisions are usually persuasive in such jurisdictions. In the United States, each state has its own supreme court with final appellate jurisdiction, resulting in the development of state common law. The US Supreme Court has the final say over federal matters. By contrast, in Australia, one national common law exists. After Britain's colonial period, jurisdictions that had inherited and adopted England's common law developed their courts of final appeal in differing ways: jurisdictions still under
2325-621: The British Empire . Many aspects of that system have survived after Independence from British rule, and the influences are often reciprocal. "English law" prior to the American Revolutionary Wars (American War of Independence) is still an influence on American law , and provides the basis for many American legal traditions and principles. After independence, English common law still exerted influence over American common law – for example, Byrne v Boadle (1863), which first applied
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2400-520: The Commonwealth continued to use the Privy Council, as it offered a readily available high-grade service. In particular, several Caribbean Island nations found the Privy Council advantageous. Britain is a dualist in its relationship with international law, so international treaties must be formally ratified by Parliament and incorporated into statute before such supranational laws become binding in
2475-752: The Dominion Land Survey . For example, the village of Yarbo, Saskatchewan is located at the legal land description of SE-12-20-33-W1, which would be the South East quarter of Section 12, Township 20, Range 33, West of the first meridian . A legal land description in British Columbia Fraser Valley Lower Mainland (Metro Vancouver) is defined by land surveys based out of New Westminster. Land in New Westminster Townsite corresponding to present day New Westminster
2550-528: The European Union 's Treaty of Rome or the Hague-Visby Rules have effect in English law only when adopted and ratified by Act of Parliament. Adopted treaties may be subsequently denounced by executive action, unless the denouncement or withdraw would affect rights enacted by Parliament. In this case, executive action cannot be used owing to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty . This principle
2625-598: The National Geodetic Survey ), and so forth. In many cases, a description refers to one or more lots on a plat , a map of property boundaries kept in public records. These legal descriptions are usually described in two different ways – metes and bounds , and lot and block . A third way is the Public Land Survey System , as used in the United States. The law recognizes different sorts of interests called estates , in real property. The type of estate
2700-547: The Welsh Language Act 1967 and the jurisdiction is, since, correctly and widely referred to as England and Wales . Devolution has granted some political autonomy to Wales via the National Assembly for Wales , which gained its power to pass primary legislation under the Government of Wales Act 2006 , in force since the 2007 Welsh general election . The legal system administered through civil and criminal courts
2775-426: The civil law distinguishes between "movable" and "immovable" property. In English law, real property is not confined to the ownership of property and the buildings sited thereon – often referred to as "land". Real property also includes many legal relationships between individuals or owners of the land that are purely conceptual. One such relationship is the easement , where the owner of one property has
2850-788: The condominium , housing cooperative , and building cooperative . Property consists of what has been referred to as a "bundle of rights" or a "bundle of sticks." The most important "sticks" in the bundle are: the right to transfer, the right to exclude, the right to use, and the right to destroy. Also called alienability , the right to transfer means that the owner may freely transfer or alienate his property to anyone. The scope of this right may be limited for public policy reasons; who can transfer, what can be transferred, and how property may be transferred may be regulated. For example, an insane person may neither transfer nor obtain real property; certain types of property may not be transferred at all, while some can be given away but not sold; how property
2925-582: The ecclesiastical courts , and the Admiralty court . In the Oxford English Dictionary (1933) "common law" is described as "The unwritten law of England, administered by the King's courts, which purports to be derived from ancient usage, and is embodied in the older commentaries and the reports of abridged cases", as opposed, in that sense, to statute law, and as distinguished from the equity administered by
3000-412: The manor . In the early common law, these are all classified as real property, as they would have been protected by real actions . Each U.S. State except Louisiana has its own laws governing real property and the estates therein, grounded in the common law . In Arizona , real property is generally defined as land and the things permanently attached to the land. Things that are permanently attached to
3075-707: The "Islamic Lafif " in the classical Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence . He argued that these institutions were transmitted to England by the Normans , "through the close connection between the Norman kingdoms of Roger II in Sicily — ruling over a conquered Islamic administration — and Henry II in England ." Makdisi argued that the " law schools known as Inns of Court " in England, which he asserts are parallel to Madrasahs , may have also originated from Islamic law. He states that
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3150-655: The British crown are subject to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London. For a long period, the British Dominions used London's Privy Council as their final appeal court, although one by one they eventually established their local supreme court . New Zealand was the last Dominion to abandon the Privy Council, setting up its own Supreme Court in 2004. Even after independence, many former British colonies in
3225-511: The Chancery and similar courts, and from other systems such as ecclesiastical law, and admiralty law. For usage in the United States the description is "the body of legal doctrine which is the foundation of the law administered in all states settled from England, and those formed by later settlement or division from them". Professor John Makdisi's article "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law" in
3300-612: The Middle East. Paul Brand notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton , who had connections with the Knights Templar . In 1276, the concept of " time immemorial " often applied in common law, was defined as being any time before 6 July 1189 (i.e. before Richard I 's accession to the English throne ). Since 1189, English law has been
3375-458: The UK may take the following forms: Orders in Council are a sui generis category of legislation. Secondary (or "delegated") legislation in England includes: Statutes are cited in this fashion: " Short Title Year", e.g. Theft Act 1968 . This became the usual way to refer to Acts from 1840 onwards; previously Acts were cited by their long title with the regnal year of the parliamentary session when they received royal assent , and
3450-628: The UK. Britain has long been a major trading nation, exerting a strong influence on the law of shipping and maritime trade . The English law of salvage , collisions , ship arrest, and carriage of goods by sea are subject to international conventions which Britain played a leading role in drafting. Many of these conventions incorporate principles derived from English common law and documentary procedures. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland comprises three legal jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Although Scotland and Northern Ireland form part of
3525-566: The US. In the United Kingdom, the Crown is held to be the ultimate owner of all real property in the realm. This fact is material when, for example, the property has been disclaimed by its erstwhile owner, in which case the law of escheat applies. In some other jurisdictions (not including the United States), real property is held absolutely . English law has retained the common law distinction between real property and personal property, whereas
3600-565: The United Kingdom and share the Parliament at Westminster as the primary legislature, they have separate legal systems. Scotland became part of the UK over 300 years ago, but Scots law has remained remarkably distinct from English law. The UK's highest civil appeal court is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom , whose decisions, and those of its predecessor the House of Lords, are binding on all three UK jurisdictions. Unless obviously limited to
3675-484: The advent of industrialization, important new uses for land emerged as sites for factories, warehouses, offices, and urban agglomerations. The value of the real property, taking the form of man-made structures and machinery, generally decreases relative to the value of the land alone. Where industrial, agricultural, and commercial property values depreciate as a result of contamination, extraction, and expected wear and tear, respectively, residential property value depreciation
3750-523: The chapter number. For example, the Pleading in English Act 1362 (which required pleadings to be in English and not Law French ) was referred to as 36 Edw. 3 . c. 15, meaning "36th year of the reign of Edward III , chapter 15". (By contrast, American convention inserts "of", as in " Civil Rights Act of 1964 "). Common law is a term with historical origins in the legal system of England. It denotes, in
3825-431: The common law with its principle of stare decisis forms the residual source of law, based on judicial decisions, custom, and usage. Common law is made by sitting judges who apply both statutory law and established principles which are derived from the reasoning from earlier decisions . Equity is the other historic source of judge-made law. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament . Not being
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#17330933609743900-538: The court, but some are " self-help " remedies; for instance, a party who lawfully wishes to cancel a contract may do so without leave; and a person may take his own steps to " abate a private nuisance ". Formerly, most civil actions claiming damages in the High Court were commenced by obtaining a writ issued in the Queen's name. After 1979, writs have merely required the parties to appear, and writs are no longer issued in
3975-473: The distinction in civil law, Bracton proposed that actions for movable property were inherently actions for relief, and that therefore an actio in rem could be brought only upon immovable property. This view is not accepted in continental civil law, but can be understood in the context of legal developments during Bracton's lifetime. In thirteenth-century England the courts of canon law claimed broad authority to interpret wills , but inheritance of land remained
4050-455: The early medieval Itinerant courts ). This body of legal scholarship was first published at the end of the 19th century, The History of English Law before the Time of Edward I , in which Pollock and Maitland expanded the work of Coke (17th century) and Blackstone (18th century). Specifically, the law developed in England's Court of Common Pleas and other common law courts, which became also
4125-506: The economic analysis of property law, see Shavell (2004), and Cooter and Ulen (2003). For a collection of related scholarly articles, see Epstein (2007). Ellickson (1993) broadens the economic analysis of real property with a variety of facts drawn from history and ethnography . English common law English law is the common law legal system of England and Wales , comprising mainly criminal law and civil law , each branch having its own courts and procedures . The judiciary
4200-670: The first place, the Anglo-Norman legal system that superseded and replaced Anglo-Saxon law in England following the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Throughout the Late Medieval Period , English law was codified through judge-made laws and precedents that were created in the proceedings of Royal justices in the Circuit courts dictated by the Eyres throughout the country (these themselves evolving from
4275-456: The land, which also can be referred to as improvements , include homes, garages, and buildings. Manufactured homes can obtain an affidavit of affixture. Land use, land valuation, and the determination of the incomes of landowners are among the oldest questions in economic theory. Land is an essential input ( a factor of production ) for agriculture, and agriculture is by far the most important economic activity in pre-industrial societies. With
4350-472: The land. In many countries, the Torrens title system of real estate ownership is managed and guaranteed by the government and replaces cumbersome tracing of ownership. The Torrens title system operates on the principle of "title by registration" (i.e. the indefeasibility of a registered interest) rather than "registration of title". The system does away with the need for a chain of title (i.e. tracing title through
4425-463: The law of the colonies settled initially under the Crown of England or, later, of the United Kingdom , in United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , Singapore , Indian Subcontient , Israel and elsewhere. This law further developed after those courts in England were reorganised by the Supreme Court of Judicature Acts passed in the 1870s. It developed independently, in
4500-504: The legal systems of the United States and other jurisdictions, after their independence from the United Kingdom, before and after the 1870s. The term is used, in the second place, to denote the law developed by those courts, in the same periods, pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial, as distinct from within the jurisdiction, or former jurisdiction, of other courts in England: the Court of Chancery ,
4575-411: The location. Natural locational attractions include water supply, climate, soil fertility, water frontage, and mineral deposits. As the area develops revolving around such natural resources, these developments become components to look for when determining land use and real property values. The surrounding development and proximity, such as markets and transportation routes, will also determine the value of
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#17330933609744650-497: The market of buying and selling real estate. Scottish civil law calls real property heritable property , and in French-based law, it is called immobilier ("immovable property"). The word "real" derives from Latin res ("thing"). Under European civil law, a lawsuit that seeks official recognition of a property right is known as an actio in rem (action in relation to a thing). This contrasts with an actio in personam in which
4725-516: The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy ( Qiyas ) are similar in both the Islamic and common law systems. Other legal scholars such as Monica Gaudiosi, Gamal Moursi Badr and A. Hudson have argued that the English trust and agency institutions, which were introduced by Crusaders , may have been adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions they came across in
4800-499: The name of the Crown. After the Woolf Reforms of 1999, almost all civil actions other than those connected with insolvency are commenced by the completion of a Claim Form as opposed to a writ, originating application, or a summons. In England there is a hierarchy of sources, as follows: The rule of European Union law in England, previously of prime importance, has been ended as a result of Brexit . Primary legislation in
4875-447: The new crime of "conspiracy to corrupt public morals", Viscount Simonds claimed the court had a "residual power to protect the moral welfare of the state". As Parliament became ever more established and influential, Parliamentary legislation gradually overtook judicial law-making, such that today's judges are able to innovate only in certain, very narrowly defined areas. England exported its common law and statute law to most parts of
4950-473: The plaintiff seeks relief for the actions of a particular person. The distinction can be subtle; the medieval action of novel disseisin , although aimed at repossessing land, was not an actio in rem because it was brought against the alleged dispossessor. Henry de Bracton 's Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England is credited with giving "real property" its particular meaning in English law. After discussing
5025-449: The power to legislate. If a statute is ambiguous, then the courts have exclusive power to decide its true meaning, using the principles of statutory interpretation . Since the courts have no authority to legislate, the " legal fiction " is that they "declare" (rather than "create") the common law. The House of Lords took this "declaratory power" a stage further in DPP v Shaw , where, in creating
5100-478: The real property. Although the overall amount of land (in terms of its surface area) is fixed, the supply of specifically urban land may vary. Sometimes urban land is created from previously agricultural land. Usually urban land is more valuable than agricultural land; this creates the incentive to convert non-urban land to urban land. The value of the land is directly associated with its use. Zoning regulations regarding multi-story development are modified to intensify
5175-401: The right to pass over a neighboring property. Another is the various "incorporeal hereditaments", such as profits-à-Prendre , where an individual may have the right to take crops from land that is part of another's estate. English law retains several forms of property that are largely unknown in other common law jurisdictions such as the advowson , chancel repair liability and lordships of
5250-472: The rights of others. This concept is embodied in the Latin maxim sic utere tuo ut alienum non-laedas , which broadly translates to: use your own property in a manner that does not injure another person's property. As a general rule, a landowner is entitled to use their land as they see fit. The scope of this right is limited in some aspects. For example, an owner may not build a "spite fence" that substantially affects
5325-513: The system of writs to meet everyday needs, applying a mixture of precedent and common sense to build up a body of internally consistent law. An example is the Law Merchant derived from the "Pie-Powder" Courts , named from a corruption of the French pieds-poudrés ("dusty feet") implying ad hoc marketplace courts. Following Montesquieu 's theory of the "separation of powers", only Parliament has
5400-414: The termination of some estate of limited term is said to have a "future interest". Two important types of future interests are: Estates may be held jointly as joint tenants with rights of survivorship or as tenants in common . The difference between these two types of joint ownership of an estate in land is basically the inheritability of the estate and the shares of interest that each tenant owns. In
5475-532: The use of cities, instead of occupying more physical space. To be of any value, a claim to any property must be accompanied by a verifiable and legal property description . Such a description usually makes use of natural or man-made boundaries such as seacoasts, rivers, streams, the crests of ridges, lakeshores , highways, roads, and railroad tracks or purpose-built markers such as cairns , surveyor 's posts, iron pins or pipes, concrete monuments, fences , official government surveying marks (such as ones affixed by
5550-487: The use of the neighbor's land (e.g. a hotel owner built a wall 85 ft (26 metres) long and 18 ft (5.5 metres) high that blocked the windows of a neighboring hotel owner). It is inevitable that most property will eventually be destroyed. A termite-infested house that has outlived its useful life may be demolished to build a new one. However, the scope of this right can be limited. For example, most jurisdictions may not allow an owner to destroy something of substantial value, like
5625-520: Was established in the case of R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union in 2017. Criminal law is the law of crime and punishment whereby the Crown prosecutes the accused. Civil law is concerned with tort , contract, families, companies and so on. Civil law courts operate to provide a party who has an enforceable claim against another party with a remedy such as damages or
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