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131-622: The lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lake lies within the Puno Region of Peru, and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department . The lake consists of two nearly separate subbasins connected by the Strait of Tiquina , which is 800 m (2,620 ft) across at

262-512: A Polish expedition in the Andes . During the middle of the 20th century there was a debate on whether Ojos del Salado or Aconcagua was the highest mountain in South America which was eventually resolved in favour of Aconcagua. The name Ojos del Salado [ˈo.xos d̪el saˈla.ð̞o] refers to a river, Río Salado ("Salty River"), that a 1937 Polish expedition used to reach the mountain. It

393-689: A 136-m-long drill core of sediments from the bottom of Lake Titicaca at a depth of 235 m (771 ft) and at a location just east of Isla del Sol. This core contains a continuous record of lake sedimentation and paleoenvironmental conditions for Lake Titicaca back to about 370,000 BP. For this period of time, Lake Titicaca was typically fresher and had higher lake levels during periods of expanded regional glaciation that corresponded to global glacial periods . During periods of reduced regional glaciation that corresponded to global interglacial periods, Lake Titicaca had typically low lake levels. Lacustrine sediments and associated terraces provide evidence for

524-426: A balance of surface inflows, evaporation and seepage) are often called sinks. Endorheic lakes are typically located in the interior of a landmass, far from an ocean, and in areas of relatively low rainfall. Their watersheds are often confined by natural geologic land formations such as a mountain range, cutting off water egress to the ocean. The inland water flows into dry watersheds where the water evaporates, leaving

655-515: A debate whether Ojos del Salado was higher than Aconcagua and thus the highest summit of the Western Hemisphere , and drew attention to the mountain. Three separate Chilean, Argentine and Austrian parties went to Ojos del Salado in 1956; the Chilean party measured an elevation of 7,084 metres (23,241 ft) with a barometer , a value that was once again presented as proven by the press despite

786-638: A dirt road built after a helicopter accident in 1994. West of the volcano lies the Nevado Tres Cruces National Park and in 1991/1994 there were plans to make a national park on the Argentine side as well. As of 2020 , the establishment of a "zone of touristic interest" encompassing Ojos del Salado was under discussion in Chile. Astronomers have surveyed the volcano for the possibility of creating an observatory there. The landforms such as

917-442: A few hundred metres. Meltwater feeds streams. Climbing parties in 1956 reported two glaciers on the northwestern slope, a 1958 report indicated that an ice body at 6,600 metres (21,700 ft) elevation descends into two branches and is followed at lower elevation by another glacier also with two branches—but in neither case with any evidence of movement— and in 2014 there was ice in the summit crater and substantial glaciers on

1048-498: A floating restaurant in 2001. Inca survived until 1994, when she was broken up. Ollanta is no longer in scheduled service, but PeruRail has been leasing her for tourist charter operations. Endorheic An endorheic basin ( / ˌ ɛ n d oʊ ˈ r iː . ɪ k / EN -doh- REE -ik ; also endoreic basin and endorreic basin ) is a drainage basin that normally retains water and allows no outflow to other external bodies of water (e.g. rivers and oceans ); instead,

1179-469: A fresh appearance but there is no clear evidence of recent activity. There are no confirmed historical eruptions and the volcano is presently inactive. In November 1993, observers witnessed ash and steam columns on two separate days but no deformation of the volcano was observed by satellites during this occasion. An ash cloud observed on June 13, 2015, and which led to a warnings about volcanic ash to aircraft turned out to be wind-blown volcanic ash in

1310-584: A geographic (southern boundary of the Puna de Atacama) and tectonic discontinuity in the region. The lineament may be a consequence of the subduction of the Copiapo Ridge at this latitude. An alternative view is that the subducting Copiapo Ridge is actually located north of the lineament; this would be more consistent with the theory that the subduction of such ridges gives rise to gaps in the volcanic chain. Except for firn and small glaciers in sheltered parts of

1441-485: A gift, or school supplies for the children on the island. The islanders hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists, where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and allow them to participate. Taquile is a hilly island located 45 km (28 mi) east of Puno. It is narrow and long and was used as a prison during the Spanish Colony and into the 20th century. In 1970, it became property of

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1572-573: A high concentration of minerals and other inflow erosion products. Over time this input of erosion products can cause the endorheic lake to become relatively saline (a " salt lake "). Since the main outflow pathways of these lakes are chiefly through evaporation and seepage, endorheic lakes are usually more sensitive to environmental pollutant inputs than water bodies that have access to oceans, as pollution can be trapped in them and accumulate over time. Endorheic regions can occur in any climate but are most commonly found in desert locations. This reflects

1703-498: A large creek to its origin at Aguas Calientes at 4,200 metres (13,800 ft). From there it continues first up dry valleys to Acqua di Vicuna at 4,950 metres (16,240 ft) elevation, to the El Arenal plateau at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) elevation and eventually along various routes to Ojos del Salado. The mountain is also accessible by vehicle, up to 6,650 metres (21,820 ft) or 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation, through

1834-788: A large portion of Europe drains to the endorheic Caspian Sea, Europe's wet climate means it contains relatively few terminal lakes itself: any such basin is likely to continue to fill until it reaches an overflow level connecting it with an outlet or erodes the barrier blocking its exit. There are some seemingly endorheic lakes, but they are cryptorheic, being drained either through manmade canals , via karstic phenomena, or other subsurface seepage. A few minor true endorheic lakes exist in Spain (e.g. Laguna de Gallocanta , Estany de Banyoles ), Italy , Cyprus ( Larnaca and Akrotiri salt lakes) and Greece . Many small lakes and ponds in North Dakota and

1965-536: A limit of the erosion and deposition processes of nearby areas. Endorheic water bodies include the Caspian Sea , which is the world's largest inland body of water. The term endorheic derives from the French word endoréisme , which combines endo- ( Ancient Greek : ἔνδον éndon 'within') and ῥεῖν rheîn 'flow'. Endorheic lakes (terminal lakes) are bodies of water that do not flow into an ocean or

2096-447: A massif/ complex volcano formed by overlapping smaller volcanoes, with over 20 craters. Two edifices, less than 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) wide, flank the 1.3-by-0.5-kilometre-wide (0.81 mi × 0.31 mi) summit crater on its eastern and western side. Basalt , gravel , pumice and scoria crop out in its rim, which is lower on the northern side. A second 300–400-metre-wide (980–1,310 ft) crater lies just west of

2227-535: A myth their "Ojos del Salado" was a much smaller mountain and the actual Ojos del Salado was their "Peak 'e'". The Polish climbers Justyn Wojsznis  [ pl ] and Jan Szczepański from the Second Polish Andean Expedition reached the summit on February 26, 1937 and left a cairn but most of the maps and report they drafted were lost during World War II . After the Polish expedition,

2358-519: A redistribution of water from these hydrologically landlocked basins such that endorheic water loss has contributed to sea level rise , and it is estimated that most of the terrestrial water lost ends up in the ocean. In regions such as Central Asia, where people depend on endorheic basins and other surface water sources to satisfy their water needs, human activity greatly impacts the availability of that water. Large endorheic regions in Africa are located in

2489-420: A sea. Most of the water that falls to Earth percolates into the oceans and the seas by way of a network of rivers, lakes, and wetlands . Analogous to endorheic lakes is the class of bodies of water located in closed watersheds (endorheic watersheds) where the local topography prevents the drainage of water into the oceans and the seas. These endorheic watersheds (containing water in rivers or lakes that form

2620-705: A shallow angle and volcanism is absent in the "Pampean flat-slab". The shallow angle may be a consequence of the subduction of submarine topography, such as the Copiapo Ridge at the northern end of the Juan Fernández Ridge at the southern margin of the gap. The basement in the region crops out in the Cordillera Claudio Gay area, and consists of sedimentary rocks of Devonian - Carboniferous age. The rocks are intruded by and covered by granites and rhyolites associated with Permian volcanic rocks and

2751-476: A single extended family. Some of the islands have watchtowers and other buildings, also constructed of sedges. Historically, most of the Uros islands were located near the middle of the lake, about 14 km (9 mi) from the shore; however, in 1986, after a major storm devastated the islands, many Uros rebuilt closer to shore. As of 2011, about 1,200 Uros lived on an archipelago of 60 artificial islands, clustering in

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2882-472: A single season of free circulation, the lake is monomictic , and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Río Desaguadero , which then flows south through Bolivia to Lake Poopó . This only accounts for about 10% of the lake's water balance . Evapotranspiration , caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at high altitude, balances the remaining 90% of the water loss. It

3013-467: A surface area of 8,372 km (3,232 sq mi) and an elevation of 3,812 m (12,507 ft), Lake Titicaca is often called the highest navigable lake in the world. That claim is generally considered to refer to commercial craft. Numerous smaller lakes around the world are at higher elevations, such as the 6,000 square metres (65,000 sq ft) crater lake of Ojos del Salado , which at an elevation of 6,480–6,500 metres (21,260–21,330 ft)

3144-438: A third of all climbing attempts reach the summit. Would-be mountaineers need to consult weather forecasts and prepare equipment before attempting an ascent. The mountain can be ascended from both the Argentine and the Chilean side, but owing to the better logistics most ascents occur from the Chilean side. The increasing mountaineering activities on Ojos del Salado have raised concerns about environmental impacts. Ascent from

3275-497: Is an intermontane basin. This basin is a pull-apart basin created by strike-slip movement along regional faults starting in the late Oligocene and ending in the late Miocene . The initial development of the Tinajani Basin is indicated by volcanic rocks , which accumulated between 27 and 20 million years ago within this basin. They lie upon an angular unconformity which cuts across pre-basin strata . Lacustrine sediments of

3406-644: Is common in summer. Precipitation probably peaks at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) where the cloud base lies; above that elevation it decreases to about 200 millimetres (7.9 in). Snow cover in the area is sporadic and quickly sublimates, which hinders its measurement; the average snow cover is less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) thick. Due to the dry climate, the region is a desert with little vegetation occurring above 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation, and none above 4,900 metres (16,100 ft). However, lichens and mosses have been found at higher elevations and green growths have been reported from

3537-501: Is divided into six sectors or suyus for crop rotation purposes. The economy is based on fishing, terraced farming based on potato cultivation, and tourist-generated income from the roughly 40,000 tourists who visit each year. Situated on the Bolivian side of the lake with regular boat links to the town of Copacabana, Bolivia , Isla del Sol ("Island of the Sun") is one of the largest islands of

3668-404: Is expected to contain permafrost , which is likely continuous at higher elevations and overlaid with a thin active layer . Cryoturbation landforms were not conspicuous according to Nagy et al. 2019, presumably because wind-driven phenomena overprint the effects of cryoturbation. Mass movements have left traces on the mountain. Ojos del Salado hosts the highest lake in the world in

3799-409: Is nearly a closed lake. Since 2000, Lake Titicaca has experienced constantly receding water levels. Between April and November 2009 alone, the water level dropped by 81 cm (32 in), reaching the lowest level since 1949. This drop is caused by shortened rainy seasons and the melting of glaciers feeding the tributaries of the lake. Water pollution is also an increasing concern because cities in

3930-506: Is no evidence of Pleistocene glacier advances in the region nor any indication of a Pleistocene snowline , although cirques have been reported from Nevado Tres Cruces and some sources propose the existence of glaciers 19,000 years ago. The monsoon reached farther south during the Pleistocene but did not reach Ojos del Salado, allowing the development of glaciers only at more northern latitudes. Westerly winds did not regularly influence

4061-527: Is nonendemic). Reeds and other aquatic vegetation are widespread in Lake Titicaca. Totora sedges grow in water shallower than 3 m (10 ft), less frequently to 5.5 m (18 ft), but macrophytes , notably Chara and Potamogeton , occur down to 10 m (33 ft). In sheltered shallow waters, such as the harbour of Puno , Azolla , Elodea , Lemna and Myriophyllum are common. The Tinajani Basin, in which Lake Titicaca lies,

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4192-403: Is one such case, with annual precipitation of 850 mm (33 in) and characterized by waterlogged soils that require draining. Endorheic regions tend to be far inland with their boundaries defined by mountains or other geological features that block their access to oceans. Since the inflowing water can evacuate only through seepage or evaporation, dried minerals or other products collect in

4323-574: Is separate from the main body (connected only by the Strait of Tiquina ) and the Bolivians call it Lago Huiñaymarca (also Wiñay Marka, which in Aymara means the Eternal City) and the larger part Lago Chucuito. The large lake also is occasionally referred to as Lago Mayor, and the small lake as Lago Menor. In Peru, these smaller and larger parts are referred to as Lago Pequeño and Lago Grande, respectively. With

4454-466: Is the highest lake of any kind in the world. Owing to its altitude and the desiccated climate, the mountain lacks vegetation. Ojos del Salado was volcanically active during the Pleistocene and Holocene , during which it mainly produced lava flows. Activity was in two phases and a depression or caldera formed in the course of its growth. The volcano was also impacted by eruptions of its neighbour to

4585-488: Is the overall highest lake in the world, and the 280 km (110 sq mi) Lake Puma Yumco , which at an elevation of 5,030 m (16,500 ft) is the highest large lake in the world. For many years, the largest vessel afloat on Lake Titicaca was the 2,200-ton (2,425 U.S. tons), 79 m (259 ft) SS Ollanta . Today, the largest vessel is most likely the similarly sized train barge/float Manco Capac , operated by PeruRail . The cold sources and winds over

4716-675: Is uncertain—it may date back to the Late Pliocene. Lake Cabana possibly dates to the Middle Pleistocene. Lake Ballivián existed between 120,000 and 98,000 BP. Two high lake stands, between 72,000 and 68,000 BP and 44,000–34,000 BP, have been discerned for Lake Minchin within the Altiplano. Another ancient lake in the area is Ouki . The high lake levels of Lake Tauca have been dated as having occurred between 18,100 and 14,100 BP. Underwater excavations and surveys in and around Khoa reef, near

4847-466: Is unclear whether the name was already used before by a Chile-Argentina boundary commission. Another theory posits that the name means "salty eyes" or "salty springs ", referring to mineral deposits on its flanks. The mountain is often referred to as Cerro Ojos del Salado and Nevado Ojos del Salado; the former is a common term for "mountain" in Chile and the latter means "snowy", referring to snow-covered mountains. There are two summits, known as

4978-423: Is uninhabited and lacks water resources; many parts are only accessible through dirt roads. Ojos del Salado is a dormant volcano that rises to 6,893 metres (22,615 ft), 6,879 metres (22,569 ft) or 6,887 metres (22,595 ft) elevation. It is the world's highest volcano and the second-highest summit of the Andes, and the highest summit in Chile. Ojos del Salado is not a single conical summit but

5109-466: The American Alpine Club in 1956. The expedition was hindered by bad weather conditions and a gust of wind stretching a measurement line may have almost frustrated the goal to determine the summit elevation of Ojos del Salado. The same party later used geodetic methods to establish the elevation of Ojos del Salado as 6,885.5 ± 3 metres (22,590.2 ± 9.8 ft) and lower than

5240-461: The Arid Diagonal of South America, the mountain has extremely dry conditions, which prevent the formation of substantial glaciers and a permanent snow cover . Despite the arid climate, there is a permanent crater lake about 100 m (330 ft) in diameter at an elevation of 6,480 metres (21,260 ft)-6,500 metres (21,300 ft) within the summit crater and east of the main summit. This

5371-580: The Bolivian railways' 1,000 mm ( 3 ft  3 + 3 ⁄ 8  in ) meter gauge line at Guaqui . The lake has had a number of steamships, each of which was built in the United Kingdom in "knock down" form with bolts and nuts, disassembled into many hundreds of pieces, transported to the lake, and then riveted together and launched. In 1862 Thames Ironworks on the River Thames built

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5502-610: The Bonneville flood . The Malheur / Harney lake system in Oregon is normally cut off from drainage to the ocean, but has an outflow channel to the Malheur River . This is presently dry, but may have flowed as recently as 1,000 years ago. Examples of relatively humid regions in endorheic basins often exist at high elevation. These regions tend to be marshy and are subject to substantial flooding in wet years. The area containing Mexico City

5633-465: The Choiyoi Group . Oligocene to recent volcanic rocks and volcano-sedimentary formations cover this basement. The topography at Ojos del Salado bears evidence of what may have been past magmatic uplift. Seismic tomography has yielded evidence of a low seismic velocity anomaly underneath the volcano that may constitute the pathway through which water emanating from the downgoing slab rises through

5764-607: The Fiambala valley. Seismic activity has been reported. There is no information on volcanic hazards at Ojos del Salado and volcanic hazards in the Central Volcanic Zone are poorly reconnoitred, but a 2018 presentation at the University of Auckland ranked it 14th of 38 Argentine volcanoes and the Chilean geological agency SERNAGEOMIN 75th out of 92, thus as a very low risk volcano. The latter has published hazard maps for

5895-466: The Pacific Ring of Fire . Where volcanic activity occurs, the subduction process releases fluids from the downgoing slab which trigger the formation of melts in the mantle that eventually ascend to the surface and give rise to volcanism. The CVZ spans Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina and contains about 1,100 recognized volcanoes, many of which are extremely old and are still recognizable owing to

6026-461: The Quaternary , volcanism formed the edifices of Cerro Solo, El Fraile, Incahuasi, El Muerto , El Muertito, Falso Azufre , Nevado San Francisco , Nevado Tres Cruces and Ojos del Salado, which together cover over half of the area. Apart from the large volcanoes, many smaller mafic monogenetic volcanoes developed in the area, especially east of Ojos del Salado. Pleistocene volcanism was limited to

6157-575: The River Clyde in Scotland built SS  Coya . She was 52 m (170 ft) long and was launched on the lake in 1893. In 1905, Earle's Shipbuilding at Kingston upon Hull on the Humber built SS  Inca . By then, a railway served the lake, so the ship was delivered in kit form by rail. At 67 m (220 ft) long and 1,809 tons (1,994 U.S. tons), Inca was the lake's largest ship thus far. In

6288-906: The Sahara Desert , the Sahel , the Kalahari Desert , and the East African Rift : Endorheic lakes exist in Antarctica's McMurdo Dry Valleys , Victoria Land , the largest ice-free area. Much of Western and Central Asia is a giant endorheic region made up of a number of contiguous closed basins. The region contains several basins and terminal lakes, including: Other endorheic lakes and basins in Asia include: Australia , being very dry and having exceedingly low runoff ratios due to its ancient soils, has many endorheic drainages. The most important are: Though

6419-730: The Tiwanaku peoples (around 650–1000 AD) built a major temple on the Island of the Moon. Pottery vessels of local dignitaries dating from this period have been excavated on islands in Lake Titicaca. Two of them were found in the 19th century and are now in the British Museum in London. The structures seen on the island today were built by the Inca ( circa 1450–1532) directly over the earlier Tiwanaku ones. Suriki lies in

6550-569: The Uros (or Uru) people from layers of cut totora, a thick, buoyant sedge that grows abundantly in the shallows of Lake Titicaca. The Uros harvest the sedges that naturally grow on the lake's banks to make the islands by continuously adding sedges to the surface. According to legend, the Uru people originated in the Amazon and migrated to the area of Lake Titicaca in the pre-Columbian era , where they were oppressed by

6681-537: The introduced rainbow trout and the silverside Odontesthes bonariensis . In addition to the Titicaca orestias, native fish species in the lake's basin are other species of Orestias , and the catfish Trichomycterus dispar , T. rivulatus , and Astroblepus stuebeli (the last species not in the lake itself, but in associated ecosystems). The many Orestias species in Lake Titicaca differ significantly in both habitat preference and feeding behavior. About 90% of

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6812-544: The 1920s, Earle's supplied a new bottom for the ship, which also was delivered in kit form. Trade continued to grow, so in 1930, Earle's built SS  Ollanta . Her parts were landed at the Pacific Ocean port of Mollendo and brought by rail to the lake port of Puno. At 79 m (260 ft) long and 2,200 tons (425 U.S. tons), she was considerably larger than the Inca , so first a new slipway had to be built to build her. She

6943-557: The 1990s commercial tours have become important facilitators for ascents, and the number of climbers has increased in the 21st century. Ojos del Salado is one of the Second Seven Summits and Volcanic Seven Summits mountaineering challenges. It is easier to climb than an eight thousander owing to its lower elevation and the absence of rock faces and ice, but the high elevation, cold, dry and windy weather and impassable terrain are common challenges for would-be climbers and only

7074-450: The 6,960 metres (22,830 ft) high Aconcagua. In 1989, Francesco Santon of the University of Padua in Italy, with Argentine assistance, used GPS -based positioning to determine an elevation of 6,900 ± 5 metres (22,638 ± 16 ft). Ojos del Salado and the surrounding mountains draw fewer mountaineers than Aconcagua, with only several hundred climbers every year. Since

7205-480: The Andes at Ojos del Salado but did not mention it. Ojos del Salado is likewise absent from the 1861 plans of William Wheelwright for a railway across Paso San Francisco. The explorer Walter Penck crossed the area in 1912/13 and 1913/14 but did not identify the mountain. In 1896, 1897 and 1903 the Chile-Argentina boundary commission identified a peak in the area and named it "Ojos del Salado"; according to

7336-541: The Bolivian part of lake Titicaca (in the southeastern part also known as lake Wiñaymarka). Suriki is thought to be the last place where the art of reed boat construction survives, at least as late as 1998. Craftsmen from Suriqui helped Thor Heyerdahl in the construction of several of his projects, such as the reed boats Ra II and Tigris , and a balloon gondola. The dual gauge car float Manco Capac links PeruRail 's 1,435 mm ( 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ) standard gauge line at Puno with

7467-489: The Chilean part of the volcano. Future eruptions would most likely produce lava domes, lava flows and minor explosive activity, and the presence of ice on the mountain makes it a potential source for lahars . Effects would most likely be limited to the direct surroundings of the volcano, such as highway Chile Route 31  [ es ] . There are fumaroles that emit sulfurous fumes. Polish climbers in 1937 first observed this activity, 200 metres (650 ft) below

7598-537: The Chilean side is easier as the first refuge can be reached by car, but the actual climb is easier from the Argentine side. A dirt road departing from the Chile Route 31  [ es ] highway to Paso San Francisco heads south to Ojos del Salado, past Refugio Murray to the bivouac Refugio Universidad de Atacama/Jorge Rojas at 5,200 metres (17,100 ft) elevation, from there a path goes to Refugio Tejos at 5,825 metres (19,111 ft) elevation and eventually to

7729-559: The Holocene, which cover an area of 120 square kilometres (46 sq mi), as well as pumice deposits at Laguna Verde and elongated fractures in the summit region. A rhyodacitic eruption was dated with tephrochronology to have occurred 750 ± 250 CE , and may have deposited tephra over the Bolson de Fiambala and in the Tafí and Villa Vil areas of northwestern Argentina. Many volcanic rocks have

7860-502: The Isla del Sol. Given the lack of a common name for Lake Titicaca in the 16th century, the Spaniards are thought to have used the name of the site of the most important indigenous shrine in the region, thakhsi cala on the Isla del Sol, as the name for the lake. In time and with usage, this name developed into Titicaca. Locally, the lake goes by several names. The southeast quarter of the lake

7991-467: The Island of Khoa, have recovered thousands of artifacts. These artifacts consist of ceramic feline incense burners, carved juvenile llamas, and well-crafted metal, shell, and stone ornaments. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Lake Titicaca was a mythical place and the location of a pilgrimage complex for the Incas . Part of this complex included Khoa reef as a location where offerings were dropped into

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8122-543: The Lower Tinajani Formation, which are exposed within the Tinajani Basin, demonstrate the presence of a pre-Quaternary, ancestral Lake Titicaca within it between 18 and 14 million years ago (Mya). Little is known about the prehistory of Lake Titicaca between 14 Mya and 370,000 BP because the lake sediments dating to this period lie buried beneath the bottom of Lake Titicaca and have not yet been sampled by continuous coring. The Lake Titicaca drilling project recovered

8253-576: The Maricunga arc . Between 8–5 million years ago activity declined in the Maricunga region and increased in the Ojos del Salado region, until Maricunga volcanism ceased 4 million years ago. This shift coincided with a gradual flattening of the subduction process since the Miocene and was accompanied by change in crustal and mantle properties that are reflected in the isotope ratios of erupted volcanic rocks. During

8384-870: The Northern Great Plains are endorheic, and some have salt encrustations along their shores. Some of Earth's ancient endorheic systems and lakes include: Ojos del Salado Nevado Ojos del Salado is a dormant complex volcano in the Andes on the Argentina – Chile border. It is the highest volcano on Earth and the highest peak in Chile. The upper reaches of Ojos del Salado consist of several overlapping lava domes , lava flows and volcanic craters , with sparse ice cover. The complex extends over an area of 70–160 square kilometres (27–62 sq mi) and its highest summit reaches an altitude of 6,893 metres (22,615 ft) above sea level. Numerous other volcanoes rise around Ojos del Salado. Being close to

8515-714: The Ojos del Salado area, where recent faulting offset volcanic rocks. The large dimensions of Ojos del Salado indicate that magmatism was focused here. Volcanic rocks erupted by Ojos del Salado form a calc-alkaline potassium -rich suite of dacitic rocks, with occasional andesite and rhyodacite . Earlier in the geological history of the region more mafic magmas also erupted. The rocks contain phenocrysts like augite , biotite , hornblende , hypersthene , opaque minerals, plagioclase , pyroxene and quartz . Magma mixing phenomena produced olivine and pyroxene xenocrysts and amphibole reaction rims. Volcanic activity probably commenced 3.3–1.5 million years ago or during

8646-536: The Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity " by UNESCO. Knitting is exclusively performed by males, starting at age eight. The women exclusively make yarn and weave. Taquileans are also known for having created an innovative, community-controlled tourism model, offering home stays, transportation, and restaurants to tourists. Ever since tourism started coming to Taquile in the 1970s, the Taquileños have slowly lost control over

8777-536: The Santa Rosa-Maricunga-Negro Francisco region. Chinchillas and vicuñas live in the valleys south of Ojos del Salado, and have drawn humans to the region. Mice venture to elevations of 5,250 metres (17,220 ft), and earwigs have been observed at 5,960 metres (19,550 ft) elevation. As Ojos del Salado is hidden behind and nested among many peaks of similar elevation, for centuries travellers and mountaineers paid little attention to

8908-460: The Taquile people, who have inhabited the island since then. The current population is around 2,200. The island is 5.5 by 1.6 km (3.42 by 0.99 mi) in size (maximum measurements), with an area of 5.72 km (2.21 sq mi). The highest point of the island is 4,050 m (13,290 ft) above sea level, and the main village is at 3,950 m (12,960 ft). Pre-Inca ruins are found on

9039-531: The Titicaca watershed grow, sometimes outpacing solid waste and sewage treatment infrastructure. According to the Global Nature Fund (GNF), Titicaca's biodiversity is threatened by water pollution and the introduction of new species by humans. A 2011 United Nations report found alarming concentrations of cadmium, arsenic, and lead in various parts of the lake. In 2012, the GNF nominated the lake "Threatened Lake of

9170-463: The Year". Given the various Indigenous groups that occupied the Lake Titicaca region, it likely lacked a single, commonly accepted name in prehistoric times and at the time the Spaniards arrived. The terms titi and caca can be translated in several ways. In Aymara , titi can be translated as either puma , lead , or a heavy metal. The word caca ( kaka ) can be translated as white or grey hairs of

9301-431: The area. The Puna de Atacama region has an extreme climate with strong wind, high elevation, a dry climate and high insolation ; the area is in or just south of the Arid Diagonal . Temperatures at lower elevations can exceed 10 °C (50 °F) but mean annual temperatures only reach −10 °C (14 °F). Mean winds at Laguna Verde reach maximum speeds of 8–10 metres per second (26–33 ft/s) in winter, on

9432-493: The balance between tectonic subsidence and rates of evaporation and sedimentation. Where the basin floor is dropping more rapidly than water and sediments can accumulate, any lake in the basin will remain below the sill level (the level at which water can find a path out of the basin). Low rainfall or rapid evaporation in the watershed favor this case. In areas where rainfall is higher, riparian erosion will generally carve drainage channels (particularly in times of flood), or cause

9563-456: The basin, eventually making the water saline and also making the basin vulnerable to pollution. Continents vary in their concentration of endorheic regions due to conditions of geography and climate. Australia has the highest percentage of endorheic regions at 21 per cent while North America has the least at five per cent. Approximately 18 per cent of the Earth's land drains to endorheic lakes or seas,

9694-725: The climate at the volcano, either. In South America, there are about 200 volcanoes with evidence of eruptions during the Pleistocene and Holocene along the western coast, where the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench . Volcanic activity is localized in four major volcanic belts, the Northern , Central (CVZ), Southern and Austral Volcanic Zones ; these are separated by belts without volcanic activity and form part of

9825-564: The degree that a lake no longer forms. Even most permanent endorheic lakes change size and shape dramatically over time, often becoming much smaller or breaking into several smaller parts during the dry season. As humans have expanded into previously uninhabitable desert areas, the river systems that feed many endorheic lakes have been altered by the construction of dams and aqueducts. As a result, many endorheic lakes in developed or developing countries have contracted dramatically, resulting in increased salinity, higher concentrations of pollutants, and

9956-439: The disappearance of ice volume creates cavities that collapse and form the valleys and pseudokarst landforms. Pseudokarst landforms and dolines are other structures generated by the melting of buried ice. Lateral moraines altered by wind erosion occur north of Ojos del Salado and some lava flows bear traces of glaciation. Research published in 2019 found cirques and U-shaped valleys on Ojos del Salado. However, there

10087-440: The disruption of ecosystems. Even within exorheic basins, there can be "non-contributing", low-lying areas that trap runoff and prevent it from contributing to flows downstream during years of average or below-average runoff. In flat river basins, non-contributing areas can be a large fraction of the river basin, e.g. Lake Winnipeg 's basin. A lake may be endorheic during dry years and can overflow its basin during wet years, e.g.,

10218-590: The eastern and southern slopes, which reached elevations below 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). There have been increases in ice area between 1974 and 1983 but between 1986 and 2000, ice area decreased by 40%. The melting of the ice is expected to produce an increased discharge at first, but eventually ice diminishes to the point that runoff will decline. Penitentes have been encountered by climbers as early as 1937, in 1949 there were reportedly 5–8 metres (16–26 ft) high penitentes on Ojos del Salado. Penitentes are high ice spires which form when ice sublimates in

10349-601: The eastern or Argentine and western or Chilean summit; both lie along the international boundary and get their names after the country from which they can be more easily reached. Ojos del Salado is part of the High Andes and rises from the southern end of the Puna de Atacama , a high plateau next to the Atacama Desert with an average elevation of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The border between Argentina and Chile runs across

10480-415: The families on Amantani open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals, arranged through tour guides. The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must conform to a code specified by the tourist companies that help them. Guests typically take food staples (cooking oil, rice, etc., but no sugar products, as they have no dental facilities) as

10611-524: The fish species in the basin are endemic , including 23 species of Orestias that only are found in the lake. Titicaca is home to 24 described species of freshwater snails (15 endemics, including several tiny Heleobia spp.) and less than half a dozen bivalves (all in family Sphaeriidae ), but in general these are very poorly known and their taxonomy is in need of a review. The lake also has an endemic species flock of amphipods consisting of 11 Hyalella (an additional Titicaca Hyalella species

10742-411: The flanks of Ojos del Salado, and produced pyroclastic flows . Wind-driven erosion has produced megaripple sand fields on the northern flank. Above 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) elevation talus -covered slopes and lava flows form the bulk of the surface, while the desert plains begin below 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) elevation. The ground above 4,000–5,600 metres (13,100–18,400 ft) elevation

10873-413: The form of the crater lake in the summit crater. Fed by permafrost and snowfields, it lies at 6,480–6,500 metres (21,260–21,330 ft) elevation. It is surrounded by fumaroles and covers an area of 6,000 square metres (65,000 sq ft). Waters in a creek flowing into this lake reach temperatures of 40.8 °C (105.4 °F). There are two lakes at 5,900 metres (19,400 ft) elevation on

11004-774: The former Tulare Lake . Because the Earth's climate has recently been through a warming and drying phase with the end of the Ice Ages, many endorheic areas such as Death Valley that are now dry deserts were large lakes relatively recently. During the last ice age, the Sahara may have contained lakes larger than any now existing. Climate change coupled with the mismanagement of water in these endorheic regions has led to devastating losses in ecosystem services and toxic surges of pollutants. The desiccation of saline lakes produces fine dust particles that impair agriculture productivity and harm human health. Anthropogenic activity has also caused

11135-457: The gullies and crater lakes and their conditions, and climatic conditions around Ojos del Salado have also led researchers to investigate it as a potential analogue to environments on Mars . The volcano is one of several depicted on Chilean passports . Numerous record-high altitude attempts with vehicles have been carried out at Ojos del Salado, including with cars , electric vehicles , motorcycles and utility vehicles . A modified car

11266-467: The head and the term k’ak’a can be translated as either crack or fissure, or alternatively, comb of a bird. According to Weston La Barre , the Aymara considered in 1948 that the proper name of the lake is titiq’aq’a, which means gray, discolored, lead-colored puma. This phrase refers to the sacred carved rock found on the Isla del Sol . In addition to names including the term titi and/or caca, Lake Titicaca

11397-415: The highest part of the island, and agricultural terraces on hillsides. From the hillsides of Taquile, one has a view of the tops of Bolivian mountains. The inhabitants, known as Taquileños , are southern Quechua speakers. Taquile is especially known for its handicraft tradition, which is regarded as being of the highest quality. "Taquile and Its Textile Art" were honored by being proclaimed " Masterpieces of

11528-534: The hillsides. No cars and no hotels are on the island. Since machines are not allowed on the island, all agriculture is done by hand. A few small stores sell basic goods, and a health clinic and six schools are found. Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited power a few hours each day, but with the rising price of petroleum, they no longer use the generator. Most families use candles or flashlights powered by batteries or hand cranks. Small solar panels have recently been installed on some homes. Some of

11659-658: The huge Titicaca water frog and the flightless Titicaca grebe are largely or entirely restricted to the lake. In addition to the threatened Titicaca grebe, some of the birds associated with water at Titicaca are the white-tufted grebe , Puna ibis , Chilean flamingo , Andean gull , Andean lapwing , white-backed stilt , greater yellowlegs , snowy egret , black-crowned night-heron , Andean coot , common gallinule , plumbeous rail , various ducks , wren-like rushbird , many-colored rush-tyrant , and yellow-winged blackbird . The Titicaca orestias has likely become extinct (last seen in 1938) due to competition and predation by

11790-402: The intense insolation. Ice buried beneath sand and encased in moraines is more important than surface ice at Ojos del Salado. It is retreating but the insulating effect of the cover slows the retreat. Cryokarst , erosional gullies and so-called "infilled valleys" have been observed; they most likely form when buried ice and snow melt. The combined effect of erosion by the meltwater and

11921-572: The iron-hulled sister ships SS Yavari and SS Yapura under contract to the James Watt Foundry of Birmingham . The ships were designed as combined cargo, passenger, and gunboats for the Peruvian Navy . After several years' delay in delivery from the Pacific coast to the lake, Yavari was launched in 1870 and Yapura in 1873. Yavari was 30 m (100 ft) long, but in 1914 her hull

12052-607: The lake give it an average surface temperature of 10 to 14 °C (50 to 57 °F). In the winter (June – September), mixing occurs with the deeper waters, which are always between 10 and 11 °C (50 and 52 °F). Lake Titicaca is home to more than 530 aquatic species. The lake holds large populations of water birds and was designated as a Ramsar Site on August 26, 1998. It has also been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA), in both Bolivia and Peru, by BirdLife International because it supports significant populations of many bird species. Several threatened species such as

12183-473: The lake. Lake Titicaca has a borderline subtropical highland / alpine climate with cool to cold temperatures for most of the year. The average annual precipitation is 610 mm (24 in) mostly falling in summer thunderstorms. Winters are dry with very cold nights and mornings and warm afternoons. Below are the average temperatures of the town of Juliaca , in the northern part of the lake. The "Floating Islands" are small, human-made islands constructed by

12314-482: The lake. Geographically, the terrain is harsh; it is a rocky, hilly island. No motor vehicles or paved roads are on the island. The main economic activity of the approximately 800 families on the island is farming, with fishing and tourism augmenting the subsistence economy. Over 180 ruins remain on the island. Most of these date to the Inca period around the 15th century AD. Many hills on the island contain terraces, which adapt steep and rocky terrain to agriculture. Among

12445-400: The lakes may be permanently frozen. Lakes might disappear with climate change owing to the breakdown of permafrost. The landscape is dominated by volcanoes, many of Pleistocene or Holocene age, and is the highest volcanic region in the world. Young volcanoes have conical shapes and often feature summit craters. Travellers have called the region a "moonscape". There are hot springs in

12576-422: The largest of these land areas being the interior of Asia. In deserts, water inflow is low and loss to solar evaporation high, drastically reducing the formation of complete drainage systems . In the extreme case, where there is no discernible drainage system, the basin is described as arheic . Closed water flow areas often lead to the concentration of salts and other minerals in the basin. Minerals leached from

12707-467: The late Pleistocene. The 3.7±0.2 million years old Las Lozas Andesite may have been a precursor of Ojos del Salado. The oldest rocks of Ojos del Salado are 3.5–3.4 million years old dacites in the lower parts of the volcano. Argentine geological maps define a "Ojos del Salado basal complex", which consists of a number of Miocene volcanoes that have erupted andesite and dacite , partially in glacial environments. The volcano developed in two stages, with

12838-470: The local population and were unable to secure land of their own. They built the sedge islands, which could be moved into deep water or to different parts of the lake, as necessary, for greater safety from their hostile neighbors on land. Golden in color, many of the islands measure about 15 by 15 m (50 by 50 ft), and the largest are roughly half the size of a football field. Each island contains several thatched houses, typically belonging to members of

12969-482: The low erosion rates in the region. Apart from stratovolcanoes , the CVZ includes numerous calderas, isolated lava domes and lava flows, maars and pyroclastic cones. Most of the volcanoes are remote and thus constitute a low hazard. Ojos del Salado is part of the CVZ and constitutes its southern boundary. South of the volcano volcanism ceased during the last six million years and until 32° south, subduction takes place at

13100-463: The mantle and gives rise to melting. Volcanism in the region commenced 26 million years ago, when the Farallon Plate broke up and subduction speed increased. Initially between 26 and 11 million years ago activity was concentrated in the Maricunga region 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of the Ojos del Salado region, where only small-volume volcanism took place and which constituted the back-arc to

13231-499: The mass day-tourism operated by non-Taquileans. They have thus developed alternative tourism models, including lodging for groups, cultural activities, and local guides who have completed a 2-year training program. The local Travel Agency, Munay Taquile, has been established to regain control over tourism. The people in Taquile run their society based on community collectivism and on the Inca moral code ama sua, ama llulla, ama qhilla, (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy). The island

13362-428: The more recent one grown on top of the older. A somma volcano structure may have formed during an eruption that generated the pumice deposits on the lower slopes of the volcano, and there are potential air fall deposits north of it. Ojos del Salado may or may not have produced pyroclastic flows; the neighbouring Nevado Tres Cruces c. 67,000 years ago produced extensive deposits on and around Ojos del Salado and in

13493-402: The mountain remained unclimbed until 1955, although expeditions went to its lower slopes and sometimes confused other peaks for Ojos del Salado. In that year an expedition from Tucumán ascended a mountain south of Ojos del Salado, which they mistook for the volcano. They stated that the peak may be higher than Aconcagua, which media reported as if it were proven fact. These measurements set off

13624-542: The mountain, Ojos del Salado lacks substantial ice cover. This is due to the arid climate of the region, which causes the equilibrium line altitude of ice to rise above the top of the mountain and keeps most peaks in the area ice-free. Only farther south at Tronquitos does more extensive glaciation begin. Temporary ice and snow accumulations can be mistaken for glaciers, and glacier areas shown on maps are often actually immobile firn fields. The ice reaches thicknesses of only 10–15 metres (33–49 ft) and areal extents of

13755-523: The mountain. Its remoteness meant that for a long time, both its elevation and exact topography were unclear. The positions and names of the mountains were frequently confused. The Inca used the Paso San Francisco as a major crossing of the Andes but there is no evidence of them building any structures on Ojos del Salado even though a number of such sites exist in the surrounding region. The Spanish conquistador Diego de Almagro crossed

13886-590: The mountaintops they can exceed 10 metres per second (33 ft/s) and can impede climbing attempts. Winds blow strongest in the afternoon. The winds produce aeolian landforms such as aeolian sediments , dunes , gravel pavements, abraded rocks and megaripples at lower elevations, and redeposit snow. Precipitation consists mostly of hail and snow. It either amounts to less than 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per year or reaches 300–500 millimetres (12–20 in) per year. Compared to sites farther north, precipitation falls primarily during winter, although snowfall

14017-699: The narrowest point. The larger subbasin, Lago Grande (also called Lago Chucuito ), has a mean depth of 135 m (443 ft) and a maximum depth of 284 m (932 ft). The smaller subbasin, Wiñaymarka (also called Lago Pequeño , "little lake"), has an average depth of 9 m (30 ft) and a maximum depth of 40 m (131 ft). The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m (351 ft). Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca. In order of their relative flow volumes, these are Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané, and Suchez. More than 20 other smaller streams empty into Titicaca. The lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated. Having only

14148-444: The northeastern slope, c. 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from the higher lake. Each has an area of 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft) and an estimated depth of 1 metre (3 ft 3 in). Ephemeral lakes occur at 5,900–6,000 metres (19,400–19,700 ft) elevation, when meltwater from permafrost accumulates in closed depressions. Such ponds may form in depressions at 6,380 metres (20,930 ft) elevation. Some of

14279-623: The northwestern part of Ojos del Salado, 1.08 ± 0.09 million years for flows underlying the summit, 1.08 ± 0.04 million years for the northern flank of Ojos del Salado, 700,000±50,000 for its western flank, 450,000±60,000 for El Muerto, 340,000 ± 190,000 years for the summit rocks, and 230,000±40,000 years for El Fraile. Lava flows and a lava dome on the northern flank have yielded ages of 100,000 ± 17,000 and 35,000 years, respectively. The "El Quemado Ignimbrite" may be either 200,000 or less than 50,000 years old. The youngest dates reported are 30,000 years ago. The volcano produced lava flows during

14410-612: The past existence of five major prehistoric lakes that occupied the Tinajani Basin during the Pliocene and Pleistocene . Within the northern Altiplano (Tinajani Basin), these prehistoric lakes were Lake Mataro at an elevation of 3,950 m (12,960 ft), Lake Cabana at an elevation of 3,900 m (12,800 ft), Lake Ballivián at an elevation of 3,860 m (12,660 ft), Lake (North) Minchin at an elevation of 3,825 m (12,549 ft), and Lake (North) Tauca at an elevation 3,815 m (12,516 ft). The age of Lake Mataro

14541-527: The region, such as the Termas Laguna Verde at the shores of Laguna Verde , which are frequented by visitors. The volcano lies in the middle of an over 80-kilometre (50 mi) long east–west trending chain of volcanoes that form a drainage divide and includes the volcanoes Nevado Tres Cruces , Incahuasi and Cerro Blanco . This chain of volcanoes appears to be part of the Ojos del Salado-San Buenaventura tectonic lineament , which corresponds to

14672-408: The roughly circular 15 km (6 sq mi) island. Two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth) and ancient ruins are on the top of both peaks. The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with wheat , potatoes , and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle and sheep graze on

14803-501: The ruins on the island are the Sacred Rock, a labyrinth-like building called Chinkana , Kasa Pata, and Pilco Kaima. In the religion of the Incas, the sun god was believed to have been born here. During 1987–92, Johan Reinhard directed underwater archaeological investigations off of the Island of the Sun, recovering Inca and Tiahuanaco offerings. These artifacts are currently on display in

14934-501: The site museum of the village of Challapampa. Isla de la Luna is situated east from the bigger Isla del Sol. Both islands belong to the La Paz Department of Bolivia. According to legends that refer to Inca mythology Isla de la Luna (Spanish for "island of the moon") is where Viracocha commanded the rising of the moon. Ruins of a supposed Inca nunnery (Mamakuna) occupy the eastern shore. Archaeological excavations indicate that

15065-463: The steam plumes are poorly visible from the ground except from close distance or during episodes of increased fumarolic activity. Geysers have been reported in the summit region. Hot springs occur at the shores of Laguna Verde which may be part of a hydrothermal circulation system of Ojos del Salado. According to a 2020 publication, the mountain was being evaluated for the generation of geothermal power . Detailed climate data do not exist for

15196-421: The summit and in the summit crater. Fumarolic activity appears to be linked to a rift structure on the volcano. Climbers in 1957 reported that the fumaroles were noisy and the emissions intense enough that with unfavourable winds they could suffocate people. The fumaroles can be observed from satellites in the form of temperature anomalies which reach 4 K (7.2 °F) above background temperatures, but

15327-622: The summit crater. Reportedly, the summit is separated by a deep gap into two separate peaks. Thick short dacitic lava flows make up the core 13 by 12 kilometres (8.1 mi × 7.5 mi) area of the volcano but pyroclastic fall material covers much of the summit area. The massif rises about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain and covers an oval area of about 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) –160 square kilometres (62 sq mi), consisting of lava domes , lava flows , pyroclastic cones and volcanic craters that rise about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above

15458-408: The summit of Ojos del Salado through scree-covered slopes and a steep ridge/ couloir at the end. Ropes and supports are available. Between 2004 and 2015, a Chilean company held a mountaineering concession for the Chilean side and maintained the infrastructure there; after the end of the concession maintenance resumed in 2018. From Argentina, the path runs from Cazadero Grande (Quemadito hut) along

15589-684: The summit of the mountain in east-west direction. The Argentine part is within Catamarca Province and the Chilean in Copiapo Province of the Atacama Region . The highway Chile Route 31  [ es ] runs between the city of Copiapo west of the volcano and the Paso San Francisco to Argentina, lying about 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of the volcano, making it more accessible than many other volcanoes there. The region

15720-507: The summit region. As of 2007 , there were no reports of plants in the waterbodies on Ojos del Salado. Salt, acid and cold-tolerant bacteria have been recovered from sediments in the lakes on Ojos del Salado, consistent with microorganism samples from similar dry volcanic environments. A diverse flora and fauna has been described in the lower elevation regions south-southeast of Ojos del Salado. Birds such as ducks , flamingos and geese and mammals such as guanacos and vicuñas occur in

15851-599: The surrounding rocks are deposited in the basin, and left behind when the water evaporates. Thus endorheic basins often contain extensive salt pans (also called salt flats, salt lakes, alkali flats , dry lake beds, or playas). These areas tend to be large, flat hardened surfaces and are sometimes used for aviation runways , or land speed record attempts, because of their extensive areas of perfectly level terrain. Both permanent and seasonal endorheic lakes can form in endorheic basins. Some endorheic basins are essentially stable because climate change has reduced precipitation to

15982-409: The surrounding terrain. The massif appears to feature a buried caldera , visible through a slope break from the western side, and/or a 2.5-kilometre-wide (1.6 mi) depression. The occurrence of a rift-like structure with numerous small craters has also been reported. Volcanic cones form a north-northeast trending alignment on the western flank. Cerro Solo and El Fraile are large lava domes on

16113-495: The unreliability of this technique. The Chilean party also claimed seeing the Argentine pampa and the Pacific Ocean from the summit. In 1957, the official elevation of Ojos del Salado was 6,870 metres (22,540 ft) according to Argentina and 6,880 metres (22,570 ft) according to Chile. The debate on the elevation and confusion about which mountain was Ojos del Salado and who climbed which peak prompted an expedition by

16244-697: The valley between the two volcanoes; these were originally interpreted to have originated at Ojos del Salado. A pyroclastic flow erupted by Ojos del Salado descended the Cazadero valley and constitutes the "El Quemado Ignimbrite". Cerro Solo, whose emplacement was probably accompanied by intense pyroclastic flow activity, and lava domes in the summit region are of Pleistocene age. The long-term growth rate of Ojos del Salado amounts to 0.03–0.04 cubic kilometres per kiloare (0.0072–0.0096 cu mi/ka). Radiometric dating has yielded ages of 1.53 ± 0.13, 1.2 ± 0.3 million and less than one million years ago for rocks in

16375-517: The water drainage flows into permanent and seasonal lakes and swamps that equilibrate through evaporation . Endorheic basins are also called closed basins , terminal basins , and internal drainage systems . Endorheic regions contrast with open lakes (exorheic regions), where surface waters eventually drain into the ocean. In general, water basins with subsurface outflows that lead to the ocean are not considered endorheic; but cryptorheic . Endorheic basins constitute local base levels , defining

16506-487: The water level in the terminal lake to rise until it finds an outlet, breaking the enclosed endorheic hydrological system's geographical barrier and opening it to the surrounding terrain. The Black Sea was likely such a lake, having once been an independent hydrological system before the Mediterranean Sea broke through the terrain separating the two. Lake Bonneville was another such lake, overflowing its basin in

16637-470: The west, Nevado Tres Cruces . The last eruption occurred around 750 CE ; steam emissions observed in November 1993 may have constituted another eruptive event. An international highway between Argentina and Chile crosses north of the mountain. Ojos del Salado can be ascended from both countries; the first ascent was made in 1937 by Jan Alfred Szczepański and Justyn Wojsznis  [ pl ] , members of

16768-404: The western corner of the lake near Puno , Titicaca's major Peruvian port town. The islands have become one of Peru's tourist attractions, allowing the Uros to supplement their hunting and fishing by conveying visitors to the islands by motorboat and selling handicrafts. Amantani is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by Quechua speakers. About 4,000 people live in 10 communities on

16899-402: Was also known as Chuquivitu in the 16th century. This name can be loosely translated as lance point. This name survives in modern usage in which the large lake is occasionally referred to as Lago Chucuito. Stanish argues that the logical explanation for the origin of the name Titicaca is a corruption of the term thakhsi cala, which is the 15th- to the 16th-century name of the sacred rock on

17030-483: Was launched in November 1931. In 1975, Yavari and Yapura were returned to the Peruvian Navy, which converted Yapura into a hospital ship and renamed her BAP Puno . The Navy discarded Yavari , but in 1987, charitable interests bought her and started restoring her. She is now moored at Puno Bay and provides static tourist accommodation while her restoration continues. Coya was beached in 1984, but restored as

17161-508: Was lengthened for extra cargo capacity and she was re-engined as a motor vessel . In November 1883, during the final phase of the War of the Pacific , the Chilean military command sent the Chilean torpedo boat  Colo Colo to the lake, via railroad, from Mollendo to Puno to control the area . It was the first warship to navigate the lake. In 1892, William Denny and Brothers at Dumbarton on

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