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47-783: Laižuva ( Samogitian : Laižova ) is a town in Telšiai County , Lithuania . According to the 2011 census, the town has a population of 485 people. This Telšiai County , Lithuania location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Samogitian dialect It has preserved many features of the extinct Curonian language , such as specific phonological traits and vocabulary. Samogitian differs significantly from standard Lithuanian in phonetics, morphology, syntax, and lexis, with unique archaic features not found in other Lithuanian dialects. This difference often causes speakers of Aukštaitian dialects to not be able to understand speakers of Samogitian. The use of Samogitian

94-544: A or an (in languages that have such articles). Examples of count nouns are chair , nose , and occasion . Mass nouns or uncountable ( non-count ) nouns differ from count nouns in precisely that respect: they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or the above type of quantifiers. For example, the forms a furniture and three furnitures are not used – even though pieces of furniture can be counted. The distinction between mass and count nouns does not primarily concern their corresponding referents but more how

141-445: A person , place , thing , event , substance , quality , quantity , etc., but this manner of definition has been criticized as uninformative. Several English nouns lack an intrinsic referent of their own: behalf (as in on behalf of ), dint ( by dint of ), and sake ( for the sake of ). Moreover, other parts of speech may have reference-like properties: the verbs to rain or to mother , or adjectives like red ; and there

188-594: A jebentas! – "can't be!" (Lith. negali būti! ) and many more. Samogitian is divided into three major dialects: Northern Samogitian (spoken in Telšiai and Kretinga regions), Western Samogitian (was spoken in the region around Klaipėda , now nearly extinct, – after 1945, many people were expelled and new ones came to this region) and Southern Samogitian (spoken in Varniai , Kelmė , Tauragė and Raseiniai regions). Historically, these are classified by their pronunciation of

235-463: A language. Nouns may be classified according to morphological properties such as which prefixes or suffixes they take, and also their relations in syntax  – how they combine with other words and expressions of various types. Many such classifications are language-specific, given the obvious differences in syntax and morphology. In English for example, it might be noted that nouns are words that can co-occur with definite articles (as stated at

282-516: A lexical category ( part of speech ) defined according to how its members combine with members of other lexical categories. The syntactic occurrence of nouns differs among languages. In English, prototypical nouns are common nouns or proper nouns that can occur with determiners , articles and attributive adjectives , and can function as the head of a noun phrase . According to traditional and popular classification, pronouns are distinct from nouns, but in much modern theory they are considered

329-430: A noun being used as the head (main word) of a noun phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct . For example, the noun knee can be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts , but attributively in the patient needed knee replacement . A noun can co-occur with an article or an attributive adjective . Verbs and adjectives cannot. In the following, an asterisk (*) in front of an example means that this example

376-417: A noun that represents a unique entity ( India , Pegasus , Jupiter , Confucius , Pequod ) – as distinguished from common nouns (or appellative nouns ), which describe a class of entities ( country , animal , planet , person , ship ). In Modern English, most proper nouns – unlike most common nouns – are capitalized regardless of context ( Albania , Newton , Pasteur , America ), as are many of

423-573: A singular or a plural verb and referred to by a singular or plural pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a unit and the plural often being preferred, especially in British English, when emphasizing the individual members. Examples of acceptable and unacceptable use given by Gowers in Plain Words include: Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least, be observed by at least one of

470-401: A specific sex. The gender of a pronoun must be appropriate for the item referred to: "The girl said the ring was from her new boyfriend , but he denied it was from him " (three nouns; and three gendered pronouns: or four, if this her is counted as a possessive pronoun ). A proper noun (sometimes called a proper name , though the two terms normally have different meanings) is

517-470: A subclass of nouns parallel to prototypical nouns ). For example, in the sentence "Gareth thought she was weird", the word she is a pronoun that refers to a person just as the noun Gareth does. The word one can replace parts of noun phrases, and it sometimes stands in for a noun. An example is given below: But one can also stand in for larger parts of a noun phrase. For example, in the following example, one can stand in for new car . Nominalization

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564-405: A subclass of nouns. Every language has various linguistic and grammatical distinctions between nouns and verbs . Word classes (parts of speech) were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at least the 5th century BC. In Yāska 's Nirukta , the noun ( nāma ) is one of the four main categories of words defined. The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma (ὄνομα), referred to by Plato in

611-601: A very rich system of participles, which are derived from all tenses with distinct active and passive forms, and several gerund forms. Nouns and other declinable words are declined in eight cases: nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , instrumental , locative ( inessive ), vocative and illative . The earliest writings in Samogitian dialect appear in the 19th century. Famous authors writing in Samogitian: There are no written grammar books in Samogitian because it

658-748: Is a phrase usually headed by a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun. The head may be the only constituent, or it may be modified by determiners and adjectives . For example, "The dog sat near Ms Curtis and wagged its tail" contains three NPs: the dog (subject of the verbs sat and wagged ); Ms Curtis (complement of the preposition near ); and its tail (object of wagged ). "You became their teacher" contains two NPs: you (subject of became ); and their teacher . Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns , such as he, it, she, they, which, these , and those , to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or for other reasons (but as noted earlier, current theory often classifies pronouns as

705-489: Is a process whereby a word that belongs to another part of speech comes to be used as a noun. This can be a way to create new nouns, or to use other words in ways that resemble nouns. In French and Spanish, for example, adjectives frequently act as nouns referring to people who have the characteristics denoted by the adjective. This sometimes happens in English as well, as in the following examples: For definitions of nouns based on

752-500: Is currently in decline, with limited presence in media and education. Efforts are being made to preserve the language, including local initiatives and cultural societies. The Samogitian language, heavily influenced by Curonian , originated from the East Baltic proto-Samogitian dialect which was close to Aukštaitian dialects . During the 5th century, Proto-Samogitians migrated from the lowlands of central Lithuania, near Kaunas , into

799-745: Is different from standard Lithuanian. Dual is preserved perfectly while in standard Lithuanian it has been completely lost. The differences between nominals are considerable too. The fifth noun declension has almost completely merged with the third declension. The plural and some singular cases of the fourth declension have endings of the first declension (e.g.: singular nominative sūnos , plural nom. sūnā , in standard Lithuanian: sg. nom. sūnus , pl. nom. sūnūs ). The neuter of adjectives has been pushed out by adverbs (except for šėlt 'warm', šalt 'cold', karšt 'hot') in Samogitian. Neuter pronouns were replaced by masculine. The second declension of adjectives has almost merged with

846-442: Is little difference between the adverb gleefully and the prepositional phrase with glee . A functional approach defines a noun as a word that can be the head of a nominal phrase, i.e., a phrase with referential function, without needing to go through morphological transformation. Nouns can have a number of different properties and are often sub-categorized based on various of these criteria, depending on their occurrence in

893-552: Is mobile but often retracted at the end of words, and is also characterised by pitch accent . Samogitian has a broken tone like the Latvian and Danish languages. The circumflex of standard Lithuanian is replaced by an acute tone in Samogitian. It has five noun and three adjective declensions . Noun declensions are different from standard Lithuanian (see the next section). There are only two verb conjugations. All verbs have present , past , past iterative and future tenses of

940-432: Is no new literature in Samogitian either, as authors prefer standard Lithuanian for its accessibility to a larger audience. Out of those people who speak Samogitian, only a few can understand its written form. Migration of Samogitian speakers to other parts of the country and migration into Samogitia have reduced contact between Samogitian speakers, and therefore the level of fluency of those speakers. There are attempts by

987-447: Is ungrammatical. Nouns have sometimes been characterized in terms of the grammatical categories by which they may be varied (for example gender , case , and number ). Such definitions tend to be language-specific, since different languages may apply different categories. Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of their semantic properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that refer to

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1034-430: Is used for this, as in standard Lithuanian. A Samogitian computer keyboard layout has been created. Samogitian alphabet: Noun In grammar , a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an object or subject within a phrase, clause, or sentence. In linguistics , nouns constitute

1081-459: Is verb conjugation . The past iterative tense is formed differently from Lithuanian (e.g., in Lithuanian the past iterative tense , meaning that action which was done in the past repeatedly, is made by removing the ending -ti and adding -davo ( mirti – mirdavo , pūti – pūdavo ), while in Samogitian, the word liuob is added instead before the word). The second verb conjugation merged with

1128-690: The Cratylus dialog , and later listed as one of the eight parts of speech in The Art of Grammar , attributed to Dionysius Thrax (2nd century BC). The term used in Latin grammar was nōmen . All of these terms for "noun" were also words meaning "name". The English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through the Anglo-Norman nom (other forms include nomme , and noun itself). The word classes were defined partly by

1175-603: The Dubysa and Jūra basins, as well as into the Samogitian Upland . They displaced or assimilated the local, Curonian-speaking Baltic populations. Further north, they displaced or assimilated the indigenous Semigallian -speaking peoples. Assimilation of Curonians and Semigallians gave birth to the three Samogitian subdialects. In the 13th century, Žemaitija became a part of the Baltic confederation called Lietuva (Lithuania), which

1222-587: The Lithuanian word Duona, "bread". They are referred to as Dounininkai (from Douna ), Donininkai (from Dona ) and Dūnininkai (from Dūna ). The Samogitian language is rapidly declining: it is not used in the local school system and there is only one quarterly magazine and no television broadcasts in Samogitian. There are some radio broadcasts in Samogitian (in Klaipėda and Telšiai ). Local newspapers and broadcast stations use standard Lithuanian instead. There

1269-471: The Samogitian Cultural Society to stem the loss of the dialect. The council of Telšiai city put marks with Samogitian names for the city at the roads leading to the city, while the council of Skuodas claim to use the language during the sessions. A new system for writing Samogitian was created. The first use of a unique writing system for Samogitian was in the interwar period , however it

1316-467: The indicative mood , subjunctive (or conditional ) and imperative moods (both without distinction of tenses) and infinitive . The formation of past iterative is different from standard Lithuanian. There are three numbers in Samogitian: singular , plural and dual . Dual is almost extinct in standard Lithuanian. The third person of all three numbers is common. Samogitian as the standard Lithuanian has

1363-441: The senses ( chair , apple , Janet , atom ), as items supposed to exist in the physical world. Abstract nouns , on the other hand, refer to abstract objects : ideas or concepts ( justice , anger , solubility , duration ). Some nouns have both concrete and abstract meanings: art usually refers to something abstract ("Art is important in human culture"), but it can also refer to a concrete item ("I put my daughter's art up on

1410-443: The sex or social gender of the noun's referent, particularly in the case of nouns denoting people (and sometimes animals), though with exceptions (the feminine French noun personne can refer to a male or a female person). In Modern English, even common nouns like hen and princess and proper nouns like Alicia do not have grammatical gender (their femininity has no relevance in syntax), though they denote persons or animals of

1457-520: The Samogitian Cultural Society discourages these conventions and recommends using the letters with macrons above instead. The use of double letters is accepted in cases where computer fonts do not have Samogitian letters; in such cases y is used instead of Samogitian ī, the same as in standard Lithuanian, while other long letters are written as double letters. The apostrophe might be used to denote palatalization in some cases; in others i

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1504-756: The adjectives happy and serene ; circulation from the verb circulate ). Illustrating the wide range of possible classifying principles for nouns, the Awa language of Papua New Guinea regiments nouns according to how ownership is assigned: as alienable possession or inalienable possession. An alienably possessed item (a tree, for example) can exist even without a possessor. But inalienably possessed items are necessarily associated with their possessor and are referred to differently, for example with nouns that function as kin terms (meaning "father", etc.), body-part nouns (meaning "shadow", "hair", etc.), or part–whole nouns (meaning "top", "bottom", etc.). A noun phrase (or NP )

1551-401: The definite article is le for masculine nouns and la for feminine; adjectives and certain verb forms also change (sometimes with the simple addition of -e for feminine). Grammatical gender often correlates with the form of the noun and the inflection pattern it follows; for example, in both Italian and Romanian most nouns ending in  -a are feminine. Gender can also correlate with

1598-691: The dialect, in particular phonetics. The earliest writings in the Samogitian language appeared in the 19th century. Samogitian and its subdialects preserved many features of the Curonian language, for example: as well as various other features not listed here. The earliest writings in Samogitian language appeared in the 16th century ( Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas has been written mostly in south Samogtian dialect), more in 18th century (starting with "Ziwatas Pona Yr Diewa Musu Jezusa Christusa" written in 1759 in north Samogitian dialect). ( ɤ ) ė may be retracted in some sub-dialects to form ( ɤ ) represented by

1645-443: The dictionaries of such languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n. , which may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some modern authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns (single words) and noun phrases (multiword units that are sometimes called noun equivalents ). It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when distinguishing between

1692-476: The first declension, with only singular nominative case endings staying separate. The formation of pronominals is also different from standard Lithuanian. Samogitian also has many words and figures of speech that are altogether different from typically Lithuanian ones, e.g., kiuocis – basket (Lith. krepšys , Latvian ķocis ), tevs – thin (Lith. plonas, tęvas , Latvian tievs ), rebas – ribs (Lith. šonkauliai , Latvian ribas ),

1739-404: The first in Samogitian. The plural reflexive ending is -muos instead of expected -mies which is in standard Lithuanian ( -mės ) and other dialects. Samogitian preserved a lot of relics of athematic conjugation which did not survive in standard Lithuanian. The intonation in the future tense third person is the same as in the infinitive, in standard Lithuanian it shifts. The subjunctive conjugation

1786-474: The forms that are derived from them (the common noun in "he's an Albanian "; the adjectival forms in "he's of Albanian heritage" and " Newtonian physics", but not in " pasteurized milk"; the second verb in "they sought to Americanize us"). Count nouns or countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural , can combine with numerals or counting quantifiers (e.g., one , two , several , every , most ), and can take an indefinite article such as

1833-482: The fridge"). A noun might have a literal (concrete) and also a figurative (abstract) meaning: "a brass key " and "the key to success"; "a block in the pipe" and "a mental block ". Similarly, some abstract nouns have developed etymologically by figurative extension from literal roots ( drawback , fraction , holdout , uptake ). Many abstract nouns in English are formed by adding a suffix ( -ness , -ity , -ion ) to adjectives or verbs ( happiness and serenity from

1880-413: The grammatical forms that they take. In Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and inflected for case and number . Because adjectives share these three grammatical categories , adjectives typically were placed in the same class as nouns. Similarly, the Latin term nōmen includes both nouns (substantives) and adjectives, as originally did the English word noun ,

1927-618: The letter õ. Tėkrus → tõkrus, lėngvus → lõngvus, tėn → tõn. The vowel can be realized as close-mid central [ɘ] or close-mid back [ɤ], depending on the speaker. The Samogitian language is highly inflected like standard Lithuanian , in which the relationships between parts of speech and their roles in a sentence are expressed by numerous flexions. There are two grammatical genders in Samogitian – feminine and masculine. Relics of historical neuter are almost fully extinct while in standard Lithuanian some isolated forms remain. Those forms are replaced by masculine ones in Samogitian. Samogitian stress

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1974-467: The nouns present those entities. Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, soda is countable in "give me three sodas", but uncountable in "he likes soda". Collective nouns are nouns that – even when they are treated in their morphology and syntax as singular – refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples include committee , government , and police . In English these nouns may be followed by

2021-456: The start of this article), but this could not apply in Russian , which has no definite articles. In some languages common and proper nouns have grammatical gender, typically masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender of a noun (as well as its number and case, where applicable) will often require agreement in words that modify or are used along with it. In French for example, the singular form of

2068-424: The two types being distinguished as nouns substantive and nouns adjective (or substantive nouns and adjective nouns , or simply substantives and adjectives ). (The word nominal is now sometimes used to denote a class that includes both nouns and adjectives.) Many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term for noun (for example, Spanish sustantivo , "noun"). Nouns in

2115-789: Was considered to be a dialect of Lithuanian , but there were some attempts to standardise its written form. Among those who have tried are Stasys Anglickis  [ lt ] , Pranas Genys  [ lt ] , Sofija Kymantaitė-Čiurlionienė , B. Jurgutis , Juozas Pabrėža  [ lt ] . Today, Samogitian has a standardised writing system but it still remains a spoken language, as nearly everyone writes in their native speech. Samogitian differs from Standard Lithuanian in phonetics , lexicon , syntax and morphology . Phonetic differences from standard Lithuanian are varied, each Samogitian subdialect (West, North and South) has different reflections. Standard Lithuanian → Samogitian The main difference between Samogitian and standard Lithuanian

2162-524: Was formed by Mindaugas . Lithuania conquered the coast of the Baltic Sea from the Livonian order . The coast was populated by Curonians , but became a part of Samogitia . From the 13th century onwards, Samogitians settled within the former Curonian lands, and intermarried with the population over the next three hundred years. The Curonians were assimilated by the 16th century. Its dying language has influenced

2209-570: Was neglected during the Soviet period, so only elderly people knew how to write in Samogitian at the time Lithuania regained independence. The Samogitian Cultural Society renewed the system to make it more usable. The writing system uses similar letters to standard Lithuanian, but with the following differences: As previously it was difficult to add these new characters to typesets, some older Samogitian texts use double letters instead of macrons to indicate long vowels, for example aa for ā and ee for ē; now

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