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64-472: The Lainz Tunnel was constructed during the 2000s and early 2010s as part of a major expansion of Austria's most important rail corridor, it was intentionally built as a measure to minimise gradients and facilitate high speed traffic, as well as for better accessibility to the newly constructed Wien Hauptbahnhof central station in Vienna. It is divided into two distinct sections, comprising a single bore accommodating

128-562: A stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about transport in Austria is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This European tunnel-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Wien Hauptbahnhof Wien Hauptbahnhof , Vienna Central Station or Vienna Main Station is the main railway station in Vienna , Austria , located in

192-477: A combination of shotcrete , wire mesh, and lattice girders ; additional rebar reinforcement was applied to areas which were deemed to necessitate additional reinforcement. While the installation of a pipe roof had been considered, this was found to be unnecessary. Spoil was removed by rail for disposal via landfills . Throughout the construction, sensors were active to monitor conditions such as ground settlement; these were observed to be below set limits throughout

256-415: A combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak, so

320-428: A new station solution for the area. While the plans produced by Theo Hotz do not directly correspond with the subsequently-built structure, the architects were still responsible for a large proportion of the station that was later constructed, particularly the design for both the main concourse and the platforms. The new station, known as Hauptbahnhof, has been designed as a single structure with through platforms, and

384-693: A pair of tracks and two parallel bores each carrying a single track; it also meets up with several other neighbouring tunnels, including the Wienerwald Tunnel . During the early twenty-first century, the Austrian government authorised the four-tracking of the Westbahn , which was the nation's most important rail corridor. Accordingly, the section between Vienna and St. Pölten saw the construction of two new tracks on an alignment free from challenging gradients and suitable for high speed operations, which deviated far to

448-533: A single-track connection through residential areas. In 2014, the new Wien Hauptbahnhof through station replaced this former terminus, and in 2015 most long-distance services were concentrated at Hauptbahnhof, with trains originating from or bound for the Western railway travelling through the high-speed Wienerwald Tunnel and continuing on through the Lainz Tunnel towards Hauptbahnhof and to destinations beyond. The tunnel

512-402: A timetable shakeup on 9 December and the induction of some new alignments; as a result, both regional and S-Bahn services began using platforms 9–12, while long-distance trains continued to not stop at the station. On the morning of 10 October 2014, Wien Hauptbahnhof was formally inaugurated in a ceremony held at the station, officiated by Austrian President Heinz Fischer . At one point, it

576-440: A viable and abundant source of materials and energy . In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy. Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities. Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery

640-421: A wider complex of tunnels. Towards the western end, roughly 2 km west of Wien Hütteldorf and the furthest end from Vienna, it meets with an underground junction with another 2.2 km tunnel, carrying two extra tracks for the old Westbahn, which has been operational since December 2008, and direct tracks across the junction continue in the Wienerwald Tunnel , a 13.35 km long twin-track single tube tunnel that

704-406: Is 12.3 km long (15.4 including connecting ramps) and equipped with ETCS level 2 as well as the legacy PZB control system During the late 1990s, geological surveys were conducted in preparation for the tunnel's construction; these determined that the intended route was feasible in multiple respects, including the local geology, geohydraulogy, and environmental impact. The geology it passes through

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768-551: Is CO 2 . The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N 2 ), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC) , about 2700 ppmv . Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas , and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from

832-410: Is a small walk from the main entrance and can be accessed from section E of platforms 3 to 12. The D station is called "Hauptbahnhof Ost". Landfill A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal , although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste

896-399: Is also heavily used by freight trains bound for Vienna's central classification yard by way of a branch turning near the eastern end. 48°10′12″N 16°19′12″E  /  48.1700°N 16.3200°E  / 48.1700; 16.3200 This article about an Austrian building or structure is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Vienna location article is

960-679: Is capable of handling more trains a day on much less space than its predecessors. It has direct links to the centre of Vienna via the U-Bahn network, while ÖBB state that the other principal stations in the city are to be reachable from the station within 30 minutes. The design of the new station also features extensive onsite retail opportunities, including a 20,000-square-metre (220,000 sq ft) shopping centre positioned below track level, which accommodate for around 100 shops and restaurants, as well as an on-site underground car park with spaces for up to 600 cars and 1,110 bicycles. A major benefit of

1024-548: Is possible through the use of filters ( electro filter , active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO 2 -washer, bottom ash -grating, etc.). In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion , composting , mechanical biological treatment , pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification . Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills. The goal of

1088-415: Is primarily composed of layered silt and clay , accompanied by thin layers of sand and gravel. Ahead of the primary excavation activity, numerous vertical wells were driven for the purpose of lowering the local water table . Construction activity on the Lainz Tunnel commenced during 2000. The excavation phase of the Lainz Tunnel's construction involved considerably different methods of construction; while

1152-667: Is rapidly displaced by CO 2 in the effluent gas. Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C 2 H 4 O 2 ), CO 2 , and hydrogen gas (H 2 ). High concentrations of VFAs increase both

1216-518: Is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ), with rest of

1280-403: Is the longest decomposition phase. The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH 4 production almost completely disappears, with O 2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O 2 permeates downwardly from

1344-474: The European Union , and property development opportunities. During April 2010, the construction programme entered into full swing. That year, work began on building the rail infrastructure at the station. In excess of 45,000 cubic metres (1,600,000 cu ft) of concrete was used in the construction of the structure's baseplate as well as the entrance to the underground garage. By the end of 2010, both

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1408-740: The Favoriten district. It became fully operational in December 2015, linking major railway lines from the north , east , south and west , and replacing the old Wien Südbahnhof terminus. With 268,000 daily commuters it is Austria's busiest long-distance railway station. Aside from being voted "Austria's most beautiful railway station" (six times in total; five years in a row), it was also second in Consumer Choice Center 's ranking of "Top 10 Railway Stations for Passenger Convenience in Europe". During

1472-679: The Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme. U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by

1536-576: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied. The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency. Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills. One can treat landfills as

1600-574: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H 2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H 2 -oxidizing bacteria. The H 2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in

1664-792: The landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity . Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems. A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm . Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation. Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching . Some former locations have been converted to parkland. In

1728-520: The 1990s, interest arose in the redevelopment of Vienna 's railway stations, particularly the Südbahnhof and Ostbahnhof termini, which were at right-angles to one another. The concept of a new integrated station that served north–south and east–west routes, including three TEN corridors, to replace both of the existing stations, was mooted. Around this time, Zurich -based Theo Hotz Architects and Planners were awarded an initial design contract to develop

1792-566: The 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors ( bioreactors ) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering ). Usually, aerobic decomposition

1856-692: The European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive . The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills. Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai. However, issues frequently arise due to

1920-627: The North of the original line. It was along this new route that the Wienerwald Tunnel, which is the single biggest engineering structure, was constructed to convey the line across the Wienerwald mountain range. Its construction facilitated the movement of trains traversing the Westbahn to call at Wien Hütteldorf railway station . In relation to the rest of the line, the Lainz Tunnel formed only one element of

1984-415: The age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions: 4 C 6 H 10 O 4 + 6 H 2 O → 13 CH 4 + 11 CO 2 On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH 4 and slightly less than half

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2048-507: The alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities. On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years. Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive . The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this

2112-510: The atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change . In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization . Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases . The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through

2176-506: The bridge support structures and the platforms had been completed. In 2011, construction of office buildings in the Belvedere district commenced. During the construction process, a wooden viewing platform, known as the Bahnorama , was erected to the west of the new station building. According to its planners, RAHM Architects, the viewing platform was the highest walkable wooden tower in Europe at

2240-506: The canopies are built on top of a welded and bolted steel framework, covered by Alucobond composite panels, and supported at 38 metres (125 ft) intervals by transverse solid concrete frames, which are clad in sheet steel . To facilitate a high rate of pedestrian movement across the station, a total of 29 escalators and 14 elevators are present to provide full step-free access to all areas. Passengers are provided with various onsite amenities, along with 800 seats spread throughout

2304-418: The compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in

2368-416: The finalisation of the overall project was due to occur during 2015. The railway infrastructure for the project was largely built by a joint venture between Arge Östu-Stettin and HOCHTIEF Construction, while the station's diamond-shaped roof was installed by UNGER Steel. The total cost of building the new station has been stated to have been around €987 million; it was financed via ÖBB, the city authorities,

2432-436: The ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater . Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases , especially CO 2 and CH 4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O 2 , the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on

2496-525: The ground during an earthquake . Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses. Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to: They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles. During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with

2560-427: The landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O 2 . The O 2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O 2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O 2

2624-469: The landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems . Pollution of the local environment , such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use

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2688-451: The landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to

2752-456: The leachate. The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH 4 and CO 2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH 4 and CO 2 gas production. This

2816-471: The main access to Südtiroler Platz , the new station is better connected to the Vienna U-Bahn system, and is also accessible by Vienna S-Bahn , tram and bus lines. The Südtiroler Platz S-Bahn station was renamed Wien Hauptbahnhof (platforms 1 and 2) in December 2012. The station is served by the following services: The station is served by the following municipal public transport services: Tram D

2880-478: The majority of its length was excavated the New Austrian Tunnelling Method of underground boring, limited portions that featured unfavourable prevailing conditions used the cut-and-cover approach instead. The double track tunnel tube sections of the tunnel were excavated via sidewall galleries followed by core drive activity; backhoes were used extensively. Support was primarily delivered through

2944-404: The new headquarters for Erste Group Bank AG and ÖBB's corporate headquarters have both been built on this site, along with the new Sonnwendviertel residential district of 5,000 innercity apartments, accommodating up to 13,000 people. On 15 December 2006, the city council of Vienna gave its consent to the construction of a new station in the city; at the time, the city authorities had assessed

3008-517: The new station serves as a key meeting point in Vienna for four individual major railway lines; it also provided access to other local services including the Vienna S-Bahn, a tramway and several bus lines. The station has a total of five island platforms, each with 2 sides, for a total of 10 platforms. These five islands are complete with striking canopies, measuring roughly 210 metres in length and between 6 and 15 metres (20 and 49 ft) in height;

3072-505: The project's cost to be around 850 million euros . An environmental assessment for the rail infrastructure begun during the following year; the design reportedly incorporated around 100 km (62 mi) of new track, as well as around 300 switches and crossing. The design of the station included measures to make it both energy-efficient and environmentally friendly; features such as integrated CO 2 -controlled ventilation and geothermal energy systems have been incorporated, while both

3136-743: The project. On 9 December 2012, both the Lainz Tunnel and the wider line were inaugurated. The completed route has facilitated not only a considerable increase in freight capacity but a noticeable reduction in travel times as well. Since its completion, the Lainz Tunnel has formed a key civil engineering element for the east–west transit of railway traffic as part of the Magistrale for Europe . Previously, international passenger trains either terminated at Wien Westbahnhof station and passengers travelling eastbound had to make their way to Wien Südbahnhof station, or had to be reversed in Westbahnhof and travelled along

3200-404: The scheme has been the release of land within the city centre which had previously been occupied by the two former termini. Plans for its reuse were incorporated into the development of the new station and it has become a major urban development in its own right to include various office, retail and educational facilities. Significant investment has been attracted from several sources. Specifically,

3264-440: The station, while free Wi-Fi is available in certain designated areas. A dedicated 'Kids Corner' facility is present for the benefit of families with younger passengers. A Lion of St Mark sculpture from the former Südbahnhof is also present, which symbolises the restoration of the route through to Venezia , Italy. The new station offers significantly improved connectivity, principally focused upon international routes. By moving

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3328-425: The time, measuring 66 metres from base to tip. The structure was composed of around 150 tonnes of spruce timber , reinforced with steel elements, and assembled from four pre-fabricated modules which were lifted into place using cranes . On 6 August 2012, trains began passing through the new Hauptbahhof station without stopping. During December 2012, the station attained a partial operational status, coinciding with

3392-429: The timetable change of 13 December 2009; during this transition period, Wien Meidling railway station temporarily took on many of Südbahnhof's services until the new station could be completed. During 2009, ÖBB Infrastruktur awarded a €220 million contract for the station's construction to a consortium led by Strabag; at this point, it was intended for the first stage of the project to have been completed by 2013, while

3456-531: The troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic -like compounds. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave

3520-432: The use of daily cover . Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution , and reduced local property values. Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill, this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to

3584-404: The waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy , i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.: The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases: As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O 2 ). With added and compacted wastes, the O 2 content of

3648-435: The waste remaining in solid and liquid phases. During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate , as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of

3712-416: The weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in

3776-544: The western terminus, the tunnel divides into two sections, with one double-track connection emerging just before Wien Meidling railway station on the Southern Railways and the other further south connecting to the Donauländebahn railway and the intermodal terminal at Inzersdorf opened in 2016. Passenger trains are able to traverse it at speeds of up to 160 km/h, while freight trains are limited to 120 km/h instead. It

3840-573: The windows and walls are furnished with soundproofing . During June 2007, construction work formally commenced in the form of preliminary works, such as the remodelling of the existing S-Bahn station Südtiroler Platz. In 2008, the S-Bahn and the U-Bahn stations at Südtiroler Platz were connected to one another, while the Südbahnhof was demolished, a process which took until 2010 to complete. The bulk of Südbahnhof's services (platforms 11–19) were closed with

3904-399: The working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste", several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by

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3968-656: Was constructed in parallel with the Lainz Tunnel. When combined with the adjacent Lainzer Tunnel, the Wienerwald Tunnel results in trains covering an underground distance of 26 km, making it Austria's longest tunnel. From the western end, the Lainz Tunnel turns southeast and passes under a stormwater retention basin and the forested area of Lainzer Tiergarten in Vienna's 13th district Hietzing . Throughout its length, it various in, including single or double track tubes, pillar galleries, and wider sections for changeovers are included. To address safety concerns, various adits, galleries, and shafts have been provisioned. As it nears

4032-477: Was expected that the Hauptbahnhof would be able to fully open during December 2014, however delays were encountered, attributed to difficulties in the completion of a key footbridge, which meant the station was not fully operational until December 2015. Upon attaining full operational status, the station has been anticipated to handle 145,000 passengers and 1,000 trains per day. In terms of its mainline connection,

4096-446: Was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens ). Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of

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