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59-534: A lahar ( / ˈ l ɑː h ɑːr / , from Javanese : ꦮ꧀ꦭꦲꦂ ) is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano , typically along a river valley . Lahars are often extremely destructive and deadly; they can flow tens of metres per second, they have been known to be up to 140 metres (460 ft) deep, and large flows tend to destroy any structures in their path. Notable lahars include those at Mount Pinatubo in

118-460: A British Airways aircraft carrying 248 passengers and 15 crew traveling from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia , to Perth, Australia , on 24 June 1982, accidentally entered the ash cloud at night, about 150 km (93 mi; 81 nmi) downwind of the volcano. All four engines failed due to the buildup of volcanic ash, and the aircraft descended for 16   minutes, losing 7,500 m (24,606 ft) of its 11,500 m (37,730 ft) altitude, until

177-407: A dialect continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible . A table showing the number of native speakers in 1980, for the 22 Indonesian provinces (from the total of 27) in which more than 1% of the population spoke Javanese: According to the 1980 census, Javanese

236-619: A crime newscast). In later broadcasts, JTV offers programmes in the Central Javanese dialect (called by them basa kulonan , "the western language") and Madurese. The speakers of Suroboyoan dialect are well known for being proud of their distinctive dialect and consistently maintain it wherever they go. Javanese is spoken throughout Indonesia, neighboring Southeast Asian countries, the Netherlands, Suriname , New Caledonia , and other countries. The largest populations of speakers are found in

295-552: A new Javanese language magazine, appeared in 2005 is not published in the Javanese heartlands, but in Jakarta. Since 2003, an East Java local television station ( JTV ) has broadcast some of its programmes in the Surabayan ( Suroboyoan ) dialect, including Pojok Kampung  [ id ] ("Village Corner", main newscast), Kuis RT/RW ("RT/RW Quiz"), and Pojok Perkoro ("Case Corner",

354-745: A potential path of more than 300 kilometres (190 mi). Lahars from the 1985 Nevado del Ruiz eruption in Colombia caused the Armero tragedy , burying the city of Armero under 5 metres (16 ft) of mud and debris and killing an estimated 23,000 people. A lahar caused New Zealand's Tangiwai disaster , where 151 people died after a Christmas Eve express train fell into the Whangaehu River in 1953. Lahars have caused 17% of volcano-related deaths between 1783 and 1997. Lahars have several possible causes: In particular, although lahars are typically associated with

413-466: A variety of other pronoun whose use varies depending on the dialect or level of speech. I You He, She, It panjenenganipun Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and sometimes VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, archaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made. Examples: Both sentences mean: "He (S) comes (V) into (pp.)

472-549: A wall of mud 140 metres (460 ft) deep in the White River canyon and covered an area of over 330 square kilometres (130 sq mi), for a total volume of 2.3 cubic kilometres ( 1 ⁄ 2  cu mi). A debris-flow lahar can erase virtually any structure in its path, while a hyperconcentrated-flow lahar is capable of carving its own pathway, destroying buildings by undermining their foundations. A hyperconcentrated-flow lahar can leave even frail huts standing, while at

531-538: Is a complex system of verb affixes to express differences of status in subject and object. However, in general the structure of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model , without having to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the modifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké  = topic ; teka  = comment; ing karaton  = setting. Javanese has many loanwords supplementing those from

590-514: Is also called kawi or 'of poets, poetical's, although this term could also be used to refer to the archaic elements of New Javanese literature. The writing system used to write Old Javanese is a descendant of the Pallava script from India. Almost half of the entire vocabularies found in Old Javanese literature are Sanskrit loanwords, although Old Javanese also borrowed terms from other languages in

649-512: Is also called "Malayo-Javanic" by linguist Berndt Nothofer, who was the first to attempt a reconstruction of it based on only four languages with the best attestation at the time (Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese , and Malay ). Malayo-Javanic has been criticized and rejected by various linguists. Alexander Adelaar does not include Javanese in his proposed Malayo-Sumbawan grouping (which also covers Malayic , Sundanese , and Madurese languages). Robert Blust also does not include Javanese in

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708-628: Is also used for religious purposes. Modern Javanese emerged as the main literary form of the language in the 16th century. The change in the literary system happened as Islam started to gain influence in Java. In its early form, Modern Javanese literary form was based on the variety spoken in the north coast of Java , where Islam had already gained foothold among the local people. Many of the written works in this variety were Islamic in nature, and several of them were translation from works in Malay. The Arabic abjad

767-668: Is an official language in the Special Region of Yogyakarta , Indonesia. Javanese is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, although its precise relationship to other Malayo-Polynesian languages is hard to determine. Using the lexicostatistical method, Isidore Dyen classified Javanese as part of the "Javo-Sumatra Hesion", which also includes the Sundanese and "Malayic" languages. This grouping

826-452: Is on the right.] Galunggung For the first time since 1982 after eruptions finished and conditions seemed normal, on February 12, 2012, the status was upgraded to Alert based on changes in conditions. On 28 May 2012, it was lowered from 2 back to 1 (On a scale of 1–4). Galunggung had its first historical eruption in 1822 that produced pyroclastic flows and lahars that killed 4,011 people. The last major eruption on Galunggung

885-612: Is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language . It was the court language in Palembang , South Sumatra , until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century. Javanese is written with the Latin script , Javanese script , and Arabic script . In

944-484: Is the only language of Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental and retroflex phonemes. The latter sounds are transcribed as "th" and "dh" in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot : "ṭ" and "ḍ". Javanese, like many other Austronesian languages, is an agglutinative language, where base words are modified through extensive use of affixes . Javanese has no specific personal pronoun to express plural except for kita which

1003-407: Is used in media, ranging from books to TV programs, and the language is also taught at schools in primarily Javanese areas. Although Javanese is not a national language , it has recognized status as a regional language in the three Indonesian provinces with the biggest concentrations of Javanese people: Central Java , Yogyakarta, and East Java . Javanese is designated as the official language of

1062-656: The Greater North Borneo subgroup, which he proposes as an alternative to Malayo-Sumbawan grouping. However, Blust also expresses the possibility that Greater North Borneo languages are closely related to many other western Indonesian languages, including Javanese. Blust's suggestion has been further elaborated by Alexander Smith, who includes Javanese in the Western Indonesian grouping (which also includes GNB and several other subgroups), which Smith considers as one of Malayo-Polynesian's primary branches. In general,

1121-538: The Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java , Indonesia . There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 68 million people. Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers . It has several regional dialects and a number of clearly distinct status styles. Its closest relatives are

1180-584: The Maritime Southeast Asia . The form of Old Javanese found in several texts from 14th century onward (mostly written in Bali) is sometimes referred to as "Middle Javanese". Both Old and Middle Javanese written forms have not been widely used in Java since early 16th century. However, Old Javanese works and poetic tradition continue to be preserved in the Javanese-influenced Bali, and the variety

1239-574: The Philippine government were not adequate to stop over 6 m (20 ft) of mud from flooding many villages around Mount Pinatubo from 1992 through 1998. Scientists and governments try to identify areas with a high risk of lahars based on historical events and computer models . Volcano scientists play a critical role in effective hazard education by informing officials and the public about realistic hazard probabilities and scenarios (including potential magnitude, timing, and impacts); by helping evaluate

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1298-536: The Special Region of Yogyakarta under Yogyakarta Special Region Regulation Number 2 of 2021. Previously, Central Java promulgated a similar regulation—Regional Regulation 9/2012 —but this did not imply an official status for the language. Javanese is taught at schools and is used in some mass media , both electronically and in print. There is, however, no longer a daily newspaper in Javanese. Javanese-language magazines include Panjebar Semangat , Jaka Lodhang , Jaya Baya , Damar Jati , and Mekar Sari . Damar Jati ,

1357-432: The (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is expressed by other means if necessary. Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no grammatical tense ; time is expressed by auxiliary words meaning "yesterday", "already", etc. There

1416-552: The 19th century, Madurese was also written in the Javanese script. The original inhabitants of Lampung , the Lampungese, make up only 15% of the provincial population. The rest are the so-called "transmigrants", settlers from other parts of Indonesia, many as a result of past government transmigration programs . Most of these transmigrants are Javanese who have settled there since the 19th century. In Suriname (the former Dutch colony of Surinam ), South America, approximately 15% of

1475-732: The Philippines and Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, the latter of which killed more than 20,000 people in the Armero tragedy . The word lahar is of Javanese origin. Berend George Escher introduced it as a geological term in 1922. The word lahar is a general term for a flowing mixture of water and pyroclastic debris. It does not refer to a particular rheology or sediment concentration. Lahars can occur as normal stream flows (sediment concentration of less than 30%), hyper-concentrated stream flows (sediment concentration between 30 and 60%), or debris flows (sediment concentration exceeding 60%). Indeed,

1534-417: The Philippines in 2006. Javanese language Javanese ( / ˌ dʒ ɑː v ə ˈ n iː z / JAH -və- NEEZ , / dʒ æ v ə -/ JAV -ə- , /- ˈ n iː s / -⁠ NEESS ; basa Jawa , Javanese script : ꦧꦱꦗꦮ , Pegon : باسا جاوا ‎ , IPA: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ] ) is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family spoken primarily by

1593-465: The Ten Thousand Hills of Tasikmalaya attracted the attention of early-20th-century geologists . Houses were built on the hummocks since they provided good defence against hostile people, and being above the paddy fields were free of mosquitoes and rats . Originally, it was thought that either it had been formed by a lahar caused by the release of the waters of the crater lake , or that it

1652-628: The basic vocabulary, such as pikir ("to think", from the Arabic fikr ), badan ("body"), mripat ("eye", thought to be derived from the Arabic ma'rifah , meaning "knowledge" or "vision"). However, these Arabic words typically have native Austronesian or Sanskrit alternatives: pikir  = galih , idhep (Austronesian) and manah , cipta , or cita (from Sanskrit); badan  = awak (Austronesian) and slira , sarira , or angga (from Sanskrit); and mripat  = mata (Austronesian) and soca or nétra (from Sanskrit). Dutch loanwords usually have

1711-470: The crew managed to restart the engines and land in Jakarta. Three weeks later, on 14 July, a Singapore Airlines airplane with approximately 230   passengers aboard also inadvertently entered the cloud at night, and three of its four engines stopped. The crew succeeded in restarting one of the engines after descending 2,400 m (7,874 ft). Both aircraft suffered serious damage to their engines and exterior surfaces. A hummocky deposit known as

1770-554: The effectiveness of proposed risk-reduction strategies; by helping promote acceptance of (and confidence in) hazards information through participatory engagement with officials and vulnerable communities as partners in risk reduction efforts; and by communicating with emergency managers during extreme events. An example of such a model is TITAN2D . These models are directed towards future planning: identifying low-risk regions to place community buildings, discovering how to mitigate lahars with dams, and constructing evacuation plans. In 1985,

1829-590: The effects of volcanic activity, lahars can occur even without any current volcanic activity, as long as the conditions are right to cause the collapse and movement of mud originating from existing volcanic ash deposits. Several mountains in the world – including Mount Rainier in the United States, Mount Ruapehu in New Zealand, and Merapi and Galunggung in Indonesia – are considered particularly dangerous due to

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1888-881: The event of a Mount Rainier eruption. A lahar warning system has been set up at Mount Ruapehu by the New Zealand Department of Conservation and hailed as a success after it successfully alerted officials to an impending lahar on 18 March 2007. Since mid-June 1991, when violent eruptions triggered Mount Pinatubo 's first lahars in 500 years, a system to monitor and warn of lahars has been in operation. Radio-telemetered rain gauges provide data on rainfall in lahar source regions, acoustic flow monitors on stream banks detect ground vibration as lahars pass, and staffed watchpoints further confirm that lahars are rushing down Pinatubo's slopes. This system has enabled warnings to be sounded for most but not all major lahars at Pinatubo, saving hundreds of lives. Physical preventative measures by

1947-455: The following form : CSVC, where C = consonant , S = sonorant ( /j/, /r/, /l/, /w/ , or any nasal consonant ), and V = vowel . As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the following type: nCsvVnCsvVC. Apart from Madurese , Javanese

2006-671: The heart of the city and surrounding areas. Over 6 metres (20 ft) of mud inundated and damaged the towns of Castillejos , San Marcelino and Botolan in Zambales , Porac and Mabalacat in Pampanga , Tarlac City , Capas , Concepcion and Bamban in Tarlac . The Bamban Bridge on the MacArthur Highway, a major north–south transportation route, was destroyed, and temporary bridges erected in its place were inundated by subsequent lahars. On

2065-481: The history of the Javanese language can be divided into two distinct phases: 1) Old Javanese and 2) New Javanese. The earliest attested form of Old Javanese can be found on the Sukabumi inscription at Kediri regency, East Java which dates from 804 CE. Between the 8th and the 15th century, this form of Javanese flourished in the island of Java. Old Javanese is commonly written in the form of verses. This language variety

2124-474: The lahars killed more than 1500. The eye of Typhoon Yunya passed over the volcano during its eruption on 15 June 1991, and the resulting rain triggered the flow of volcanic ash , boulders, and water down rivers surrounding the volcano. Angeles City in Pampanga and neighbouring cities and towns were damaged by lahars when Sapang Balen Creek and the Abacan River became channels for mudflows and carried them to

2183-653: The morning of 1 October 1995, pyroclastic material which clung to the slopes of Pinatubo and surrounding mountains rushed down because of heavy rain, and turned into an 8-metre (25 ft) lahar. This mudflow killed at least 100 people in Barangay Cabalantian in Bacolor . The Philippine government under President Fidel V. Ramos ordered the construction of the FVR Mega Dike in an attempt to protect people from further mudflows. Typhoon Reming triggered additional lahars in

2242-400: The native Austronesian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting influence. The Old Javanese–English Dictionary contains approximately 25,500 entries, over 12,600 of which are borrowings from Sanskrit. Such a high number is no measure of usage, but it does suggest the extent to which the language adopted Sanskrit words for formal purposes. In a typical Old Javanese literary work about 25% of

2301-700: The neighboring languages such as Sundanese , Madurese , and Balinese . Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians . There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor ) and Singapore . Javanese is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname , Sri Lanka and New Caledonia . Along with Indonesian , Javanese

2360-521: The overall death toll to over 25,000. Footage and photographs of Omayra Sánchez , a young victim of the tragedy , were published around the world. Other photographs of the lahars and the impact of the disaster captured attention worldwide and led to controversy over the degree to which the Colombian government was responsible for the disaster. Lahars caused most of the deaths of the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo . The initial eruption killed six people, but

2419-482: The population of Jakarta are of Javanese descent, so they speak Javanese or have knowledge of it. In the province of West Java , many people speak Javanese, especially those living in the areas bordering Central Java , the cultural homeland of the Javanese. Almost a quarter of the population of East Java province are Madurese (mostly on the Isle of Madura ); many Madurese have some knowledge of colloquial Javanese. Since

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2478-542: The population of some 500,000 are of Javanese descent, among whom 75,000 speak Javanese. A local variant evolved: the Tyoro Jowo-Suriname or Suriname Javanese . The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively. In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable; otherwise they are /ə/ , or identical ( /e...e/, /o...o/ ). In

2537-558: The present day, the Latin script dominates writings, although the Javanese script is still taught as part of the compulsory Javanese language subject in elementary up to high school levels in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java. Javanese is the twenty-second largest language by native speakers and the seventh largest language without official status at the national level. It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people. At least 45% of

2596-637: The rheology and subsequent behaviour of a lahar may vary in place and time within a single event, owing to changes in sediment supply and water supply. Lahars are described as 'primary' or 'syn-eruptive' if they occur simultaneously with or are triggered by primary volcanic activity. 'Secondary' or 'post-eruptive' lahars occur in the absence of primary volcanic activity, e.g. as a result of rainfall during pauses in activity or during dormancy. In addition to their variable rheology, lahars vary considerably in magnitude. The Osceola Lahar produced by Mount Rainier in modern-day Washington some 5600 years ago resulted in

2655-681: The risk of lahars. Several towns in the Puyallup River valley in Washington state, including Orting , are built on top of lahar deposits that are only about 500 years old. Lahars are predicted to flow through the valley every 500 to 1,000 years, so Orting, Sumner , Puyallup , Fife , and the Port of Tacoma face considerable risk. The USGS has set up lahar warning sirens in Pierce County, Washington , so that people can flee an approaching debris flow in

2714-543: The same form and meaning as in Indonesian, with a few exceptions such as: The word sepur also exists in Indonesian, but there it has preserved the literal Dutch meaning of "railway tracks", while the Javanese word follows Dutch figurative use, and "spoor" (lit. "rail") is used as metonymy for "trein" (lit. "train"). (Compare a similar metonymic use in English: "to travel by rail" may be used for "to travel by train".) Malay

2773-687: The same time burying them in mud, which can harden to near-concrete hardness. A lahar's viscosity decreases the longer it flows and can be further thinned by rain, producing a quicksand -like mixture that can remain fluidized for weeks and complicate search and rescue. Lahars vary in speed. Small lahars less than a few metres wide and several centimetres deep may flow a few metres per second. Large lahars hundreds of metres wide and tens of metres deep can flow several tens of metres per second (22 mph or more), much too fast for people to outrun. On steep slopes, lahar speeds can exceed 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph). A lahar can cause catastrophic destruction along

2832-534: The six provinces of Java itself, and in the neighboring Sumatran province of Lampung . The language is spoken in Yogyakarta , Central and East Java , as well as on the north coast of West Java and Banten . It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, who are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung , Jambi , and North Sumatra provinces. In Suriname, Javanese

2891-409: The standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ] . The Javanese "voiced" phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel. The relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice . A Javanese syllable can have

2950-413: The stratification of Javanese into speech levels such as ngoko and krama , which were unknown in Old Javanese. Books in Javanese have been printed since 1830s, at first using the Javanese script , although the Latin alphabet started to be used later. Since mid-19th century, Javanese has been used in newspapers and travelogues, and later, also novels, short stories, as well as free verses. Today, it

3009-474: The total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia . There are three main dialects of the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form

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3068-556: The vocabulary is from Sanskrit. Many Javanese personal names also have clearly recognisable Sanskrit roots. Sanskrit words are still very much in use. Modern speakers may describe Old Javanese and Sanskrit words as kawi (roughly meaning "literary"); but kawi words may also be from Arabic . Dutch and Malay are influential as well; but none of these rivals the position of Sanskrit. There are far fewer Arabic loanwords in Javanese than in Malay, and they are usually concerned with Islamic religion. Nevertheless, some words have entered

3127-516: The volcano Nevado del Ruiz erupted in central Colombia. As pyroclastic flows erupted from the volcano's crater , they melted the mountain's glaciers, sending four enormous lahars down its slopes at 60 kilometers per hour (37 miles per hour). The lahars picked up speed in gullies and coursed into the six major rivers at the base of the volcano; they engulfed the town of Armero , killing more than 20,000 of its almost 29,000 inhabitants. Casualties in other towns, particularly Chinchiná , brought

3186-399: Was also adopted (as Pegon ) to write Javanese. The rise of Mataram in the 17th century shifted the main literary form of Javanese to be based on the inland variety. This written tradition was preserved by writers of Surakarta and Yogyakarta , and later became the basis of the modern written standard of the language. Another linguistic development associated with the rise of Mataram is

3245-459: Was in 1982, which had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 4 and indirectly killed 18   people in traffic accidents and by starvation. This eruption also brought the dangers of volcanic ash to aviation to worldwide attention, after two Boeing 747 passenger jets flying downwind of the eruption suffered temporary engine failures and damage to exterior surfaces, both planes being forced to make emergency landings at Jakarta airport. One plane,

3304-418: Was influenced by Indonesian’s first person plural inclusive pronoun. Pronoun pluralization can be ignored or expressed by using phrases such as aku kabèh 'we', awaké dhéwé 'us', dhèwèké kabèh 'them' and so on. Personal pronoun in Javanese, especially for the second and third person, are more often replaced by certain nouns or titles. In addition to the pronoun described in the table below, Javanese still has

3363-579: Was man-made, composed of rocks and boulders dumped there after being cleared from paddy fields . However, in the light of the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980 and from examination of the Mount Shasta deposits, it has become clear that the hummocks are a debris-avalanche deposit. Like these mountains, Galunggung has a horseshoe-shaped crater indicating a massive landslide , and examination of shattered lava blocks revealed them to be similar to deposits on

3422-408: Was the lingua franca of the Indonesian archipelago before the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945; and Indonesian, which was based on Malay, is now the official language of Indonesia. As a consequence, there has been an influx of Malay and Indonesian vocabulary into Javanese. Many of these words are concerned with bureaucracy or politics. [Javanese Ngoko is on the left, and Javanese Krama

3481-543: Was used daily in approximately 43% of Indonesian households. By this reckoning there were well over 60 million Javanese speakers, from a national population of 147,490,298. In Banten, the descendants of the Central Javanese conquerors who founded the Islamic Sultanate there in the 16th century still speak an archaic form of Javanese. The rest of the population mainly speaks Sundanese and Indonesian, since this province borders directly on Jakarta. At least one third of

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