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51-488: Kūkaniloko was an ancient Hawaiian noble lady, who became the High Chiefess (Hawaiian: Aliʻi Wahine ) of the island of Oʻahu , and had a long reign. Kūkaniloko was born on Oʻahu as a daughter of High Chief Piliwale and his spouse, High Chiefess Kawaʻalaʻauaka, his sister. Kūkanilokoʻs younger sister was called Kohipalaoa; they were Piliwaleʻs only children, and he had no sons. After Piliwale's death, Kūkaniloko became

102-424: A hoe for agriculture and horticulture . Two basic forms of an adze are the hand adze (short hoe)—a short-handled tool swung with one hand—and the foot adze (hoe)—a long-handled tool capable of powerful swings using both hands, the cutting edge usually striking at foot or shin level. A similar tool is called a mattock , which differs by having two blades, one perpendicular to the handle and one parallel. The adze

153-427: A pin pole . There are a number of specialist, short-handled adzes used by coopers , wainwrights , and chair makers, and in bowl and trough making. Many of these have shorter handles for control and more curve in the head to allow better clearance for shorter cuts. During the communist period of Bulgaria, a new multi-use woodworking adze, called Теслà ( Teslà ), emerged. It has a sharpened edge perpendicular to

204-481: A famous creation story, the demigod Māui fished the islands of Hawaiʻi from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakalā , Māui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day. The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows,

255-788: A plethora of other cash and subsistence crops . Prehistoric Māori adzes from New Zealand were for wood carving , typically made from pounamu sourced from the South Island. During the Māori Archaic period found on the North Island were commonly made from greywacke from Motutapu Island or basalt from Ōpito Bay in the Coromandel , similar to adzes constructed on other Pacific Islands. Early period notched adzes found in Northland were primarily made of argillite quarried from locations around

306-559: A ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch 's early books on Hawaiian archeology date

357-516: A second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaiʻi and the Society Islands. Had Hawaiʻi been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the aliʻi would have gained more power over

408-862: A shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 years, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language". According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaiʻi: peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune , little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove

459-581: A system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or kahuna . As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as kahuna , a term commonly understood to mean priest . The various types of kahuna passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or mele , or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work. More formal schools existed for

510-426: Is basically an adze iron with a directly attached handle. The D-handle, therefore, provides no mechanical leverage. Northwest coast adzes are often classified by size and iron shape vs. role. As with European adzes, iron shapes include straight, gutter and lipped. Where larger Northwest adzes are similar in size to their European counterparts, the smaller sizes are typically much lighter such that they can be used for

561-512: Is depicted in ancient Egyptian art from the Old Kingdom onward. Originally the adze blades were made of stone, but already in the Predynastic Period copper adzes had all but replaced those made of flint. Stone blades were fastened to the handle by tying and early bronze blades continued this simple construction. It was not until the later Bronze Age that the handle passes through an eye at

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612-542: Is often referred to in Hawaiian chant. Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism". The four biggest islands, the island of Hawaiʻi , Maui , Kauaʻi and Oʻahu were generally ruled by their own aliʻi nui (supreme ruler) with lower ranking subordinate chiefs called aliʻi ʻaimoku , ruling individual districts with land agents called konohiki . All these dynasties were interrelated and regarded all

663-454: Is similar in form to a European adze with the haft constructed from a natural crooked branch which approximately forms a 60% angle. The thin end is used as the handle and the thick end is flattened and notched such that an adze iron can be lashed to it. Modern hafts are sometimes constructed from a sawed blank with a dowel added for strength at the crook. The second form is the D-handle adze which

714-457: The ahupuaʻa as their source of water management. Each ahupuaʻa was a sub-division of land from the mountain to the sea. The Hawaiians used the water from the rain that ran through the mountains as a form of irrigation. Hawaiians also settled around these parts of the land because of the farming that was done. Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system

765-638: The Colonial Williamsburg cultural center in Virginia , United States. However, the traditional adze has largely been replaced by the sawmill and the powered plane , at least in industrialised cultures. It remains in use for some specialist crafts, for example by coopers . Adzes are also in current use by artists such as Northwest Coast American and Canadian Indigenous sculptors doing totem pole carving, as well as masks and bowls. "Adzes are used for removing heavy waste, leveling, shaping, or trimming

816-474: The Hawaiian people (and possibly all humans) as descendants of legendary parents, Wākea (symbolizing the air) and his wife Papa (symbolizing the earth). Up to the late eighteenth century, the island of Hawaiʻi had been ruled by one line descended from Umi-a-Liloa . At the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku , a lower ranking chief, Alapainui , overthrew the two sons of the former ruler who were next in line as

867-523: The Marlborough and Nelson regions. At the same time on Henderson Island , a small coral island in eastern Polynesia lacking any rock other than limestone , native populations may have fashioned giant clamshells into adzes. American Northwest coast native peoples traditionally used adzes for both functional construction (from bowls to canoes) and art (from masks to totem poles). Northwest coast adzes take two forms: hafted and D-handle. The hafted form

918-792: The Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi. David Burney argues that humans, along with

969-536: The Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox . A traditional town of ancient Hawaiʻi included several structures. Listed in order of importance: Ancient Hawaiʻi was a caste society developed from ancestral Polynesians . In The overthrow of the kapu system in Hawaii , Stephenie Seto Levin describes the main classes: Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children

1020-616: The Mouth ceremony , intended to convey power over their senses to statues and mummies. It was apparently the foreleg of a freshly sacrificed bull or cow with which the mouth was touched. As Iron Age technology moved south into Africa with migrating ancient Egyptians, they carried their technology with them, including adzes. To this day, iron adzes are used all over rural Africa for various purposes—from digging pit latrines, and chopping firewood, to tilling crop fields—whether they are of maize (corn), coffee, tea, pyrethrum, beans, millet, yams, or

1071-471: The University of Hawaii, Hilo, and concluded in 1958. Excavation of the site revealed eight fireplaces at varying depths, as well as 1671 artifacts which included faunal remains, fishhooks, and lithic materials made of basalt and volcanic glass. The distribution of artifacts in site H8 indicated that it was continuously used as a fishing shelter until the eruption of Mauna Loa in 1868. An early estimation of

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1122-587: The ancient Hawaiʻi period. Within a few decades Kamehameha I used European warfare tactics and some firearms and cannons to unite the islands into the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi . Adze An adze ( / æ d z / ) or adz is an ancient and versatile cutting tool similar to an axe but with the cutting edge perpendicular to the handle rather than parallel. Adzes have been used since the Stone Age . They are used for smoothing or carving wood in hand woodworking , and as

1173-543: The children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life. Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture. In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to

1224-449: The coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo ( taro ), maiʻa ( banana ), niu ( coconut ), ulu ( breadfruit ), and raised puaʻa ( pork ), moa ( chicken ), and ʻīlio ( poi dog ), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included paʻakai ( salt ), ground kukui nut , limu ( seaweed ), and ko ( sugarcane ) which

1275-539: The conquered lands as rewards to his warriors. In practice, commoners had some security against capricious re-possession of their houses and farms. They were usually left in place, to pay tribute and supply labor to a new chief, under the supervision of a new konohiki , or overseer. This system of land tenure has similarities with the feudal system prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages . The ancient Hawaiians had

1326-418: The continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine . Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called heiau ) were constructed from the lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by

1377-425: The counsel of experts on the islands. Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana . The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Kū (God of war), Kāne (god of light and life), Kanaloa (god of death), and Lono (god of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (goddess of fire) and her sister Hiʻiaka (goddess of dance). In

1428-412: The cutting edge 3 to 4 + 1 / 2 inches (75–115 mm) wide. On the modern, steel adze the cutting edge may be flat for smoothing work to very rounded for hollowing work such as bowls, gutters and canoes. The shoulders or sides of an adze may be curved called a lipped adze , used for notching. The end away from the cutting edge is called the pole and be of different shapes, generally flat or

1479-772: The desired shape was obtained. It was then fixed to a natural grown angled wood with resin and plant fibers. A variety of minerals were used. Imported steel axes or machetes have now entirely replaced these tools for decades in even the remotest parts of New Guinea. Indeed, even before the first foreign missionaries or colonial officials arrived in the New Guinea Highlands, inhabitants had already obtained steel tools through trade with their neighbors. Stone tools are sometimes manufactured to be sold as curios to tourists. Modern adzes are made from steel with wooden handles , and enjoy limited use: occasionally in semi-industrial areas, but particularly by "revivalists" such as those at

1530-478: The detailed smoothing, shaping and surface texturing required for figure carving. Final surfacing is sometimes performed with a crooked knife . Ground stone adzes used to be produced by a variety of people in Western New Guinea (Indonesia), Papua New Guinea and some of the smaller Islands of Melanesia and Micronesia . The hardstone would have been ground on a riverine rock with the help of water until

1581-406: The development of Hawaiian material culture." Initial radiocarbon dating for the site by Kirch suggested a range of 600 to 1200 CE, however a re-dating of samples in 2007 showed the site dated no earlier than 1300 CE, and was occupied primarily between 1400 and 1650 CE. Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called " canoe plants ") and livestock and established settlements along

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1632-483: The existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians. The Wai'ahukini Rockshelter, site H8, lies within a lava tube about 600 feet inland from the shore on the southern part of the island of Hawai'i. Based on the lack of light and space necessary for normal living conditions, it was unlikely that site H8 was used as a dwelling. Excavations of site H8 began in 1954 by William J. Bonk and students from

1683-606: The feather cloaks of the aliʻi , canoe builders. Soon, entire islands began to specialize in certain skilled trades. Oʻahu became the chief kapa (tapa bark cloth) manufacturer. Maui became the chief canoe manufacturer. The island of Hawaiʻi exchanged bales of dried fish. By chance in January 1778, British Captain James Cook encountered the Hawaiian Islands while crossing the Pacific during his third voyage of exploration . He landed first on Kauaʻi, then Niʻihau before leaving

1734-442: The first Polynesian settlements to about 300 CE with more recent suggestions by Kirch of 600 CE. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700–800 CE. In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that the period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in

1785-520: The first female ruler of the whole island of Oʻahu; although there were some female rulers on Oʻahu before Kūkaniloko — like Mualani — but they ruled only over the small portion of Oʻahu. Kūkaniloko married a man called Luaia, who was a chief from Maui . They had at least one child — Kalaʻimanuʻia , who became the High Chiefess of Oʻahu (after her mother's death). Ancient Hawaii The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by

1836-492: The first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. With the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with

1887-414: The god of light and life, Kāne , can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono). Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on ʻawa ( kava ) due to its narcotic properties. This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies. It

1938-400: The gods ( akua ). The aliʻi were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the makaʻāinana . On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed

1989-404: The handle, resembling an adze, but it is also used like a carpenter's hammer. On the back of the head is a textured poll for driving nails, and on the front is a V-shaped hole used for prying, to extract the bent nails. Some urban legends say that Bulgarian migrant workers always carry their adzes with them so they can do construction work more efficiently due to the lack of Western equivalent of

2040-638: The island's aliʻi nui . Assuming five to ten generations per century, the Aliʻi ʻAimoku dynasties were around three to six centuries old at 1800 CE. The Tahitian settlement of the Hawaiian islands is believed to have taken place in the thirteenth century. The aliʻi and other social castes were presumably established during this period. The ancient Hawaiian economy became complex over time. People began to specialize in specific skills. Generations of families became committed to certain careers: roof thatchers, house builders, stone grinders, bird catchers who would make

2091-679: The most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko (Kaua'i). At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing 2,000,000 pounds (900,000 kg) of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for kalo (taro) cultivation. The new settlers built hale (homes) and heiau (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that

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2142-449: The ships arrived during the Makahiki season dedicated to peace. Later, Cook was killed during a violent confrontation and left behind on the beach by his retreating sailors. The British demanded that his body be returned, but the Hawaiians had already performed funerary rituals of their tradition. This first European contact with the Hawaiian islands marked the beginning of the end of

2193-465: The site's initial occupation was A.D. 750 by Emory and Sinoto in 1969, but a more recent study using updated radiocarbon dating methods suggested a much later date, somewhere within the mid-14th century. Located on the island of Moloka'i, the Hālawa Dune Site was first discovered in 1964 and consists of two mounds . In the summer of 1970, Patrick Vinton Kirch performed excavations on the larger of

2244-410: The study of hula , and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge. The kahuna took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative". During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like

2295-426: The surfaces of timber" and boards. Generally, the user stands astride a board or log and swings the adze downwards between his feet, chipping off pieces of wood, moving backwards as they go and leaving a relatively smooth surface behind. Foot adzes are most commonly known as shipbuilder's or carpenter's adzes. They range in size from 00 to 5 being 3 + 1 / 4  to 4 + 3 / 4 pounds (1.5–2.2 kg) with

2346-504: The top of the blade. Examples of Egyptian adzes can be found in museums and on the Petrie Museum website. A depiction of an adze was also used as a hieroglyph , representing the consonants stp , "chosen", and used as: ...Pharaoh XX, chosen of God/Goddess YY... The ahnetjer ( Manuel de Codage transliteration: aH-nTr ) depicted as an adze-like instrument, was used in the Opening of

2397-542: The two mounds, Mound B, revealing six major layers. Within the fourth layer were artifacts, faunal remains, and house foundations. Of the 496 artifacts unearthed in this layer, the most significant included fishhooks and adzes . The adzes recovered from Mound B were similar to those found in Nihoa and the Necker Islands and, according to Kirch and McCoy, served as "evidence that the Hālawa Dune Site represented an early phase in

2448-414: The vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization. Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among

2499-529: The vicinity to continue his mission to explore the Pacific coast of North America. Cook's two ships returned to the islands in November to re-supply, first sailing along the coast of Maui before eventually reaching an anchorage at Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii island. Some Hawaiians believed Cook was a sign from their god Lono. Cook's mast and sails coincidentally resembled the emblem (a mast and sheet of white kapa ) that symbolized Lono in their religious rituals;

2550-402: Was based on religious kapu , or taboos . There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat. Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (ʻAikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the aliʻi must not be touched as it was stealing his mana . The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from

2601-455: Was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired ʻuala ( sweet potato ), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and

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