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110-519: The land is very fertile and more than half is farmed, with all of the first and second delta plains and most of the third dominated by agriculture . The ecology of the delta faces some threats. As water is pumped off fields seawater is intruding, making part of the delta saltier. Also as sediment is caught in upstream dams the coastline is receding, and this is forecast to continue, and sea level may rise because of climate change in Turkey . The Kızılırmak

220-508: A better view of their global distribution. The term phytoplankton encompasses all photoautotrophic microorganisms in aquatic food webs . However, unlike terrestrial communities , where most autotrophs are plants , phytoplankton are a diverse group, incorporating protistan eukaryotes and both eubacterial and archaebacterial prokaryotes . There are about 5,000 known species of marine phytoplankton. How such diversity evolved despite scarce resources (restricting niche differentiation )

330-435: A body of water or cultured, though the former method is seldom used. Phytoplankton is used as a foodstock for the production of rotifers , which are in turn used to feed other organisms. Phytoplankton is also used to feed many varieties of aquacultured molluscs , including pearl oysters and giant clams . A 2018 study estimated the nutritional value of natural phytoplankton in terms of carbohydrate, protein and lipid across

440-583: A calcium carbonate shell called a coccosphere that is sensitive to ocean acidification. Because of their short generation times, evidence suggests some phytoplankton can adapt to changes in pH induced by increased carbon dioxide on rapid time-scales (months to years). Phytoplankton serve as the base of the aquatic food web, providing an essential ecological function for all aquatic life. Under future conditions of anthropogenic warming and ocean acidification, changes in phytoplankton mortality due to changes in rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant. One of

550-525: A culture medium. This water must be sterilized , usually by either high temperatures in an autoclave or by exposure to ultraviolet radiation , to prevent biological contamination of the culture. Various fertilizers are added to the culture medium to facilitate the growth of plankton. A culture must be aerated or agitated in some way to keep plankton suspended, as well as to provide dissolved carbon dioxide for photosynthesis . In addition to constant aeration, most cultures are manually mixed or stirred on

660-778: A fundamental principle to understand marine ecology, biogeochemistry and phytoplankton evolution. However, the Redfield ratio is not a universal value and it may diverge due to the changes in exogenous nutrient delivery and microbial metabolisms in the ocean, such as nitrogen fixation , denitrification and anammox . The dynamic stoichiometry shown in unicellular algae reflects their capability to store nutrients in an internal pool, shift between enzymes with various nutrient requirements and alter osmolyte composition. Different cellular components have their own unique stoichiometry characteristics, for instance, resource (light or nutrients) acquisition machinery such as proteins and chlorophyll contain

770-535: A half tonnes a hectare, and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown. Barley is not usually irrigated, so yield depends on rainfall. Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley. Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed . Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct. Citrus fruits are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions . Many tomatoes are exported. Most vegetable and fruit exports are to

880-495: A high concentration of nitrogen but low in phosphorus. Meanwhile, growth machinery such as ribosomal RNA contains high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations. Based on allocation of resources, phytoplankton is classified into three different growth strategies, namely survivalist, bloomer and generalist. Survivalist phytoplankton has a high ratio of N:P (>30) and contains an abundance of resource-acquisition machinery to sustain growth under scarce resources. Bloomer phytoplankton has

990-417: A larger surface area, are exposed to less seasonal variation and have markedly faster turnover rates than trees (days versus decades). As a result, phytoplankton respond rapidly on a global scale to climate variations. Phytoplankton form the base of marine and freshwater food webs and are key players in the global carbon cycle . They account for about half of global photosynthetic activity and at least half of

1100-503: A lot in 21/22 due to international price rises and the fall in the lira . The state's Grain Board (TMO) sometimes pays more for foreign than Turkish wheat, and farmers complain that foreign wheat is sold at a discount: this is done so bread is cheaper, as Turks eat so much bread. A TMO objective is to stabilize grain prices. Cotton growing and oilseeds are subsidized. There is some support for organic farming . Some farmers say their debt

1210-565: A low N:P ratio (<10), contains a high proportion of growth machinery, and is adapted to exponential growth. Generalist phytoplankton has similar N:P to the Redfield ratio and contain relatively equal resource-acquisition and growth machinery. The NAAMES study was a five-year scientific research program conducted between 2015 and 2019 by scientists from Oregon State University and NASA to investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence atmospheric aerosols , clouds, and climate (NAAMES stands for

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1320-456: A million tonnes of poultry meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year, and over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey. It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry . Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically. Seeds and bulbs are stored long term. The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions, however in

1430-435: A nutritional supplement for captive invertebrates in aquaria . Culture sizes range from small-scale laboratory cultures of less than 1L to several tens of thousands of litres for commercial aquaculture. Regardless of the size of the culture, certain conditions must be provided for efficient growth of plankton. The majority of cultured plankton is marine, and seawater of a specific gravity of 1.010 to 1.026 may be used as

1540-491: A regular basis. Light must be provided for the growth of phytoplankton. The colour temperature of illumination should be approximately 6,500 K, but values from 4,000 K to upwards of 20,000 K have been used successfully. The duration of light exposure should be approximately 16 hours daily; this is the most efficient artificial day length. Marine phytoplankton perform half of the global photosynthetic CO 2 fixation (net global primary production of ~50 Pg C per year) and half of

1650-493: A species increases rapidly under conditions favorable to growth can produce harmful algal blooms (HABs). Phytoplankton are a key food item in both aquaculture and mariculture . Both utilize phytoplankton as food for the animals being farmed. In mariculture, the phytoplankton is naturally occurring and is introduced into enclosures with the normal circulation of seawater. In aquaculture, phytoplankton must be obtained and introduced directly. The plankton can either be collected from

1760-464: A third of arable land is fallow each year. In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals, and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the United States and Syria. However in hotter and colder years less cereal is produced. About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown, but less than half that each of barley and corn. Most wheat is winter wheat . Wheat yields average 2 and

1870-451: A year is from agriculture, and farming provided 10% of exports in 2020 and 6.5% of GDP in 2022. Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine . Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. In 2023 Finance Minister Mehmet Şimşek said he would like to restart negotiations on

1980-407: A year of each. Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla , İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces. Government support is provided, although subsidies for seabream and seabass ended in 2016. In 2021, US$ 1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported, and Turkey was the worlds top producer of seabass and seabream. Most exports are to the EU and EU directives are followed. Over

2090-464: A year, that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. Edremit ( Ayvalık ) is the main variety in northern Turkey and Memecik in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown. Lentils are grown in the south-east. About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero , the Italian producer of Nutella spread , buys the most. The agriculture ministry

2200-401: Is a 130% import tariff on wheat, rye, oats, barley and corn. The TMO price of wheat was about 30% below the market price in 2023. Gübretaş and Hektaş are large producers of fertiliser and other farm products. State enterprises market some products. The largest sugar company is the state-owned Türkşeker . Over a billion dollars of damage to agriculture infrastructure and storage was done by

2310-403: Is a bird research center, which has ringed 165 thousand birds from 175 species in the delta. Reptile species found in the delta are Greek tortoise , European pond turtle , Darevskia saxicola lizard, European green lizard , Balkan green lizard , slow worm , European cat snake , Caspian whipsnake , grass snake , dice snake , and horned viper . Of the nine species of amphibians found in

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2420-440: Is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep, including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type ) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average 4.2 kilograms (9.3 lb) is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha . Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese

2530-667: Is a net wheat importer, much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine . Turkey is the European Union (EU)'s fourth largest vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products. Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. According to the World Bank , the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. Strategic planning

2640-418: Is agricultural. Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases half from cattle. Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation (cows and sheep belching methane) has been the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture , followed by agricultural soils. According to the World Bank , the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements. The Aegean Region may be

2750-495: Is also broadleaved woodland and farmland. The delta is an Important Bird Area , Important Plant Area and Key Biodiversity Area . European Nature Information System habitats are Constant Coastal Dunes with Grass, Coastal Dune Bushes, Permanent Mesotrophic Lakes and Ponds, Wide Reed Beds , Juncus Marshes, Humid or Wet Eutrophic and Mesotrophic Meadows, Flooded Forests, Thermophilic Deciduous Forests, and Mixed Market Gardens and Agricultural Sites. Aquatic invasive species include

2860-530: Is being studied. A 2023 study said that enforcement of pesticide rules was lax. Examples of good practice suggested by the Turkish Industry and Business Association (TÜSİAD) include reduced ploughing , low fertiliser use, mulching , and nitrogen inhibitors. Less ploughing saves fuel costs. Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. Over 50 billion dollars revenue

2970-729: Is causing nitrogen pollution in some river basins. This can cause eutrophication which threatens aquatic life and a project is ongoing to map and combat this. As of 2023 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation . Farmers are reluctant because of the installation cost of drip installation, and more government support has been suggested. Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet . Charging for water used by agriculture has been suggested. The most important regions for agriculture are

3080-459: Is consumed than olive oil, as it is cheaper. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens. Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea , a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast. Rize has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil . In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of

3190-500: Is declining, leading to higher light penetration and potentially more primary production; however, there are conflicting predictions for the effects of variable mixing patterns and changes in nutrient supply and for productivity trends in polar zones. The effect of human-caused climate change on phytoplankton biodiversity is not well understood. Should greenhouse gas emissions continue rising to high levels by 2100, some phytoplankton models predict an increase in species richness , or

3300-492: Is driven by — the Redfield ratio of macronutrients generally available throughout the surface oceans. Phytoplankton also rely on trace metals such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) as essential micronutrients, influencing their growth and community composition. Limitations in these metals can lead to co-limitations and shifts in phytoplankton community structure. Across large areas of

3410-430: Is due to not enough state support. Although a healthy amount of sugar is less than 50g a day for an adult the sugar production quota for market year 23/24 was 3 million tonnes, thus for the population of 85 million about twice as much sugar is produced than is healthy. Phytoplankton Phytoplankton ( / ˌ f aɪ t oʊ ˈ p l æ ŋ k t ə n / ) are the autotrophic (self-feeding) components of

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3520-459: Is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees, as national supply does not meet domestic demand. Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion has been training pistachio farmers. Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace, and more sunflower oil

3630-732: Is estimated to have decreased by 2% annually on average from 2005 to 2016. According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development "investment is needed to help farmers update production techniques, boost productivity and cope with climate change" in the uplands (most rural land is uplands). In 2023 food inflation was over 50%. In 2023 the EU complained that Turkey was restricting imports and said it should improve food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy. Although in April 2023 there were no import taxes on wheat, barley, maize, rye , oats , legumes and sorghum ; as of May 2023 there

3740-889: Is evaluating the contributions of phytoplankton to carbon fixation and forecasting how this production may change in response to perturbations. Predicting the effects of climate change on primary productivity is complicated by phytoplankton bloom cycles that are affected by both bottom-up control (for example, availability of essential nutrients and vertical mixing) and top-down control (for example, grazing and viruses). Increases in solar radiation, temperature and freshwater inputs to surface waters strengthen ocean stratification and consequently reduce transport of nutrients from deep water to surface waters, which reduces primary productivity. Conversely, rising CO 2 levels can increase phytoplankton primary production, but only when nutrients are not limiting. Some studies indicate that overall global oceanic phytoplankton density has decreased in

3850-414: Is helping to stop child labour . The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has various projects, prioritising "Food and Nutrition Security and Food Safety", "Sustainable use of natural resources and raising awareness on climate change impacts" and "Institutional Capacity of Public and Private Sectors". The 2024 agricultural support budget was €2.7 billion. In 2019–21 about 20% of gross farm income

3960-411: Is important, and in 2017 total SOC down to 0.7 m was estimated at 9.23 Pg . Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/sq km. Accumulation of soil organic matter depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity. Crops can be grown in all regions and there is livestock on high mountains and in arid regions. Wheat, sugar beet, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops; and Turkey

4070-535: Is increasing, some farmers are switching to avocados as they are more profitable because they need less water. About 4 million tonnes of grapes are grown annually, ranking sixth in the world. The country has the fifth largest area of vineyard , and about 3% of the harvest is used for Turkish wine . Raisins are exported to the EU and the United Kingdom. There are almost 200 million olive trees, and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil

4180-409: Is made from sheep milk. Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture. In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand water buffalos. There are over 400 marine aquaculture facilities. Sea bass ( Dicentrarchus labrax ) and sea bream ( Sparus aurata ) are farmed, and mostly trout ( rainbow trout and brown trout ) in inland waters, these 3 being the most farmed, with about 150 thousand tonnes

4290-469: Is occasionally used to pump water to combat drought , which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes. The irrigation part of the Eastern Anatolia Project is controversial. Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which loses 35% to 60% of water through evaporation, seepage, and leakage. This old-fashioned irrigation may quickly deplete groundwater and run off the farm. Runoff

4400-425: Is of utmost importance to secondary producers such as copepods, fish and shrimp, because it determines the nutritional quality and influences energy flow through the marine food chains . Climate change may greatly restructure phytoplankton communities leading to cascading consequences for marine food webs , thereby altering the amount of carbon transported to the ocean interior. The figure gives an overview of

4510-426: Is on feed, with half of the ingredients being imported. In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef. Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle. Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste. Turkey

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4620-445: Is only allowed on agriculturally marginal land. and farmers say there is too much red tape. Problems include small farm sizes, rising import costs and natural resource depletion such as soil. Nearly two-thirds of farms are smaller than 5 hectares, possibly due to divisions on inheritance. There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022 , 16% of the workforce. As of 2022, agricultural statistics need improvement according to

4730-468: Is only one electric tractor manufacturer and they are not yet mass-produced. There is a General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies (TAGEM) centre for research on soil borne pathogens . As of 2022 some gene editing of animal feed corn and feed soya has been allowed but not for human food. Biostimulants have been suggested to increase drought resistance and food security , as has technology to use water more efficiently. No-till farming

4840-401: Is owned by individuals, some is public and some disputed. Several government departments are responsible, which can cause confusion. There is a buffer zone around the strictly protected area. A plan for some coastal protection of Liman Lagoon was published in 2019. Some traditional practices help with the management: for example water buffalo and fishing boats help keep the connections between

4950-447: Is predicted to co-occur with ocean acidification and warming, due to increased stratification of the water column and reduced mixing of nutrients from the deep water to the surface. The compartments influenced by phytoplankton include the atmospheric gas composition, inorganic nutrients, and trace element fluxes as well as the transfer and cycling of organic matter via biological processes (see figure). The photosynthetically fixed carbon

5060-451: Is rapidly recycled and reused in the surface ocean, while a certain fraction of this biomass is exported as sinking particles to the deep ocean, where it is subject to ongoing transformation processes, e.g., remineralization. Phytoplankton contribute to not only a basic pelagic marine food web but also to the microbial loop. Phytoplankton are the base of the marine food web and because they do not rely on other organisms for food, they make up

5170-568: Is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many freshwater food webs ( chemosynthesis is a notable exception). While almost all phytoplankton species are obligate photoautotrophs , there are some that are mixotrophic and other, non-pigmented species that are actually heterotrophic (the latter are often viewed as zooplankton ). Of these, the best known are dinoflagellate genera such as Noctiluca and Dinophysis , that obtain organic carbon by ingesting other organisms or detrital material. Phytoplankton live in

5280-423: Is the longest river entirely within Turkey, and has the second largest drainage basin . The delta covers an area of about 56 thousand hectares, of which 11,600 are wetland ecosystems and related habitats. At one time the coast was advancing, but later it retreated, mainly due to less sediment coming down the river due to dams built upstream, such as Altınkaya and Derbent . The Black Sea coastal road runs across

5390-422: Is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry , but no plan for 2024 onwards has yet been published. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically. Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented. Atatürk , who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture . Governments initiated many projects, such as

5500-408: Is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts , apricots , and oregano . Half of Turkey's land is agricultural, and farming employs about 15% of the workforce, but under half a million farmers. It provides about 10% of exports and over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP). Over 380 billion lira of agricultural subsidy is budgeted for 2024. Despite being a major food producer, Turkey

5610-437: Is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts , apricots, oregano and raisins. As of 2023 most cultivated land is for grain. In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced; 32 million tonnes of vegetables; and 27 million tonnes of fruit, beverages and spice crops; and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed , dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables. Due to rotation

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5720-471: Is unclear. In terms of numbers, the most important groups of phytoplankton include the diatoms , cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates , although many other groups of algae are represented. One group, the coccolithophorids , is responsible (in part) for the release of significant amounts of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) into the atmosphere . DMS is oxidized to form sulfate which, in areas where ambient aerosol particle concentrations are low, can contribute to

5830-576: The 2023 earthquake . The Agricultural Insurance Pool is linked to the government. But import tariffs average over 40% so it would be hard to add agriculture to the EU customs union. Some academics say that high food price inflation is due to macroeconomic instability. Food price rises such as onion and potato prices can be politically sensitive. TÜSİAD say that Turkey needs a good climate change adaptation strategy to cope with effects such as drought. Input costs could be reduced by replacing some diesel use with solar power, but as of 2022 agrivoltaics

5940-474: The Marshall Plan . By the 1970s higher yielding varieties of wheat had been planted, but einkorn continued to be consumed by locals. The increase in agricultural land continued until the 1990s when it started to decrease. Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized , and by the end of the 20th century only 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture. Formerly widespread in

6050-626: The Mediterranean , Aegean, Black Sea , Thrace and Marmara , Central Anatolia , Eastern Anatolia and transition regions. By the mid-20th century erosion had reduced the amount of arable land, but the government is combating desertification and erosion in various ways. However soil erosion is forecast to increase with climate change, with about 30% occurring on agricultural land. The main types of soil in Turkey are calisols , cambisols and leptosols , and fluvisols . Degraded soil could be improved. Soil surveys have been done at least since

6160-555: The North Anatolian Fault has pushed up the southern part of the delta, and changes in climate and sea level have alternated lagoons and lakes. Strabo described the delta as producing fruit, deer, gazelles and soft-wooled sheep, and the town of Gadilon . During the Ottoman Empire and early years of the republic malaria was widespread near the marshes and the lower lands were occupied seasonally. As in some other parts of

6270-449: The photic zone of the ocean, where photosynthesis is possible. During photosynthesis, they assimilate carbon dioxide and release oxygen. If solar radiation is too high, phytoplankton may fall victim to photodegradation . Phytoplankton species feature a large variety of photosynthetic pigments which species-specifically enables them to absorb different wavelengths of the variable underwater light. This implies different species can use

6380-586: The plankton community and a key part of ocean and freshwater ecosystems . The name comes from the Greek words φυτόν ( phyton ), meaning ' plant ', and πλαγκτός ( planktos ), meaning 'wanderer' or 'drifter'. Phytoplankton obtain their energy through photosynthesis , as trees and other plants do on land. This means phytoplankton must have light from the sun, so they live in the well-lit surface layers ( euphotic zone ) of oceans and lakes. In comparison with terrestrial plants, phytoplankton are distributed over

6490-401: The "low-hanging fruit" of extending the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products, which had come to a halt in 2018; as of 2023 the agreement only applies to processed agricultural products. In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine. Around 70% of imported wheat is reexported as pasta, bulgur and flour. Europe and

6600-463: The 1950s, and the ministry has published soil maps. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey. A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to sequester carbon . There is a public soil database, but as of 2023 the weblink does not work. Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils

6710-446: The 1960s. In the late 20th century the ecological value of the marshes was recognized and attempts to protect them began, although some local residents opposed restrictions on agriculture and building. At the end of the 20th century they were made a Ramsar site , then nature tourism became popular. In 2016 Turkey nominated it as a World Heritage Sites , but the IUCN said it did not meet

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6820-414: The EU. Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs. In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy . Geothermal heat can also be used to dry fruit. Tropical fruit such as mangoes can be grown in greenhouses. In 2023 hydroponics was starting to be used in these geothermal greenhouses. Although banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region

6930-658: The EU. In 2022 there were over 2 million people on the Agriculture Ministry's Farmer Registration System, but only half a million were farmers and known to the Social Security Institution . Many farms are small, mostly single person or family farms, with many women working informally. It has been claimed that with the influx of Syrian refugees seasonal agricultural work became more precarious, especially for women and children. Kurdish seasonal workers are also poor. The International Labour Organization

7040-498: The Middle East are large export markets and some food is processed before export. In 2020 the country receiving the most exports was Iraq, and that sending the most food to Turkey was Russia. Turkey is the world's largest exporter of wheat flour, and some other countries' flour producers say it is dumping with unfair subsidies. The EU intends to support rural development with €430 million during 2021–2027. Total factor productivity

7150-599: The North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study). The study focused on the sub-arctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is the site of one of Earth's largest recurring phytoplankton blooms. The long history of research in this location, as well as relative ease of accessibility, made the North Atlantic an ideal location to test prevailing scientific hypotheses in an effort to better understand

7260-406: The channels. Gendarmes are stationed to prevent illegal hunting. Pumping of groundwater causes seawater intrusion, and in 2021 academics called for such pumping to be stopped. Climate change in Turkey has changed bird migrations . From 1984–2022 coastal retreat averaged 7 meters a year, and as of 2023 this is expected to continue. There are sometimes wildfires . In the past half million years

7370-403: The coast. The climate is temperate, with hot dry summers, warm wet winters, and foggy and rainy springs. Rainfall averages 719 mm a year. The wind usually blows from the west and this has shaped the delta so that most of the marshland is in its the east . In the delta are many wetland ecosystems: bottomland hardwood forest , freshwater and brackish lakes, reed beds and sand dunes . There

7480-468: The controversial Southeastern Anatolia Project , but later much agriculture was privatized. The population increased a lot in the 20th century, so there was more demand for food and agricultural land. From 1880 to 1950 agricultural output growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land. Then growth accelerated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors – for example due to

7590-417: The country much of the population was forcibly exchanged between Greece and Turkey in the early 20th century. Malaria hindered attempts to resettle migrants from lands lost by the empire, and during the 20th century some of the land was drained to combat mosquitos and provide agricultural land for these people and those coming from the eastern Black Sea part of Turkey. Rice production was expanded. Tobacco

7700-585: The criteria. Some illegally built holiday homes were demolished by Samsun Council. Since 2017 hunting has been banned in part of the delta. Derbent Dam Altınkaya Dam [REDACTED] Media related to Kızılırmak Delta at Wikimedia Commons Agriculture in Turkey Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy , and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers. Wheat, sugar beet , milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products; and Turkey

7810-458: The delta is important for birds which directly cross the Black Sea. White stork migrate to Africa and return to breed here (about 950 pairs almost all nesting in trees and number increasing and some now resident) and there are many other species such as: grey-headed swamphen and great white egret . There is a bird ringing station called Cernek Ringing Station. At Ondokuz Mayıs University there

7920-566: The delta, two species are salamanders and seven species are frogs. The main species in the area are the southern banded newt ( Triturus vittatus ), southern crested newt ( Triturus karaelinii ), common toad ( Bufo bufo ), European green toad ( Bufo viridis ), European tree frog ( Hyla arborea ), eastern spadefoot toad ( Pelobates syriacus) , agile frog ( Rana dalmatina ), and Uludağ frog ( Rana macrocnemis ). Lake fishers catch carp , mullet , zander and crayfish ( Astacus leptodactylus ).Small numbers of sturgeon have been observed in

8030-586: The ecosystem. The most important crop is rice , but some say it uses too much water which is needed for nature or buffalos. Vegetables are grown. There are feral horses (sometimes called jades or yılkı horses). There are over 500 species of plants. There is seagrass . Grass ( Paspalum paspalodes ) grows when the lake water recedes in the summer and is eaten by water buffalo. There is less volume of phytoplankton and fewer phytoplankton species in more saline lakes. There are 15 species of freshwater snails . 70% of bird species in Turkey have been recorded and

8140-412: The estuary and may still attempt to migrate upstream. Invasive prussian carp are said to have disrupted some other fish. Rapana venosa are invasive shellfish but are valuable to export for Far East eating. They are dredged from the sea around Samsun. So-iuy mullet (Planiliza haematocheila) are also sold. Residents say that tourism benefits local employment. Tourism includes walking, enjoying

8250-460: The first 2 decades of the 21st century farming is thought not to have been sustainable . The EU said in 2022 that food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy should be improved. Various tech is being considered, sometimes similar is already being made in local factories, for example the defence industry makes drones . There are about 2 million tractors and it has been suggested that electric tractors should be subsidized. However, there

8360-498: The first trophic level. Organisms such as zooplankton feed on these phytoplankton which are in turn fed on by other organisms and so forth until the fourth trophic level is reached with apex predators. Approximately 90% of total carbon is lost between trophic levels due to respiration, detritus, and dissolved organic matter. This makes the remineralization process and nutrient cycling performed by phytoplankton and bacteria important in maintaining efficiency. Phytoplankton blooms in which

8470-488: The fish Carassius gibelio , Gambusia holbrooki , Gambusia affinis , Pseudorasbora parva , and the comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi . There are over 20 lakes, which average 1.5m deep but double that in spring, when their area can exceed 9,000 hectares. Tatlı and Gıcı Lakes are freshwater and the rest are brackish . Some of the lake water is eutrophic due to agricultural pollution . There are 30 drainage channels, which drain agricultural land. Buffalo are set free to roam in

8580-416: The functioning of the planktonic food web. Phytoplankton obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the euphotic zone ) of an ocean , sea , lake , or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for about half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds ( primary production )

8690-513: The global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. The effects of anthropogenic ocean acidification on phytoplankton growth and community structure has also received considerable attention. The cells of coccolithophore phytoplankton are typically covered in

8800-436: The key mediators of the biological pump . Understanding the response of phytoplankton to changing environmental conditions is a prerequisite to predict future atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 . Temperature, irradiance and nutrient concentrations, along with CO 2 are the chief environmental factors that influence the physiology and stoichiometry of phytoplankton. The stoichiometry or elemental composition of phytoplankton

8910-470: The lakes open. In the late 2010s experts issued a management plan although they could not agree with residents what should be done; as the existing management plan ran to the end of 2023 a revised plan is being discussed. Doğa hope to complete a resurvey of all Key Biodiversity Areas in Turkey by the end of 2024. There is a strategic environmental assessment drought plan for the river basin. A 2020 study found both sewage and agricultural pollution in

9020-612: The landscape, photography, picnicking, cycling and watching wildlife such as birdwatching . With over 50 km of beach a 2019 study said that it has great potential for sea tourism as well as ecotourism . The study questioned visiting families and found most thought of: wetland, agriculture, one of the largest deltas of Turkey, Turkey's largest river, fertile lands, fertile fields. Over 70% had not heard of ramsar, over 70% thought wetlands are at risk of climate change. The 2017-2023 management plan says that sub-plans will be prepared to manage water, visitors, grazing and aquaculture.Some land

9130-493: The many food chains in the ocean – remarkable due to the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton sustaining krill (a crustacean similar to a tiny shrimp), which in turn sustain baleen whales . The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles in the Equatorial Pacific area can affect phytoplankton. Biochemical and physical changes during ENSO cycles modify the phytoplankton community structure. Also, changes in

9240-453: The meat market. The main animal feed crops are alfalfa , silage corn, oats, vetch , and sainfoin . Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed. Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease . In 2022 there were 17 million cattle of which about 70% were dairy. Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy. About 80% of cattle farm expenditure

9350-592: The more dominant phytoplankton and reflect a larger portion of the biomass . In the early twentieth century, Alfred C. Redfield found the similarity of the phytoplankton's elemental composition to the major dissolved nutrients in the deep ocean. Redfield proposed that the ratio of carbon to nitrogen to phosphorus (106:16:1) in the ocean was controlled by the phytoplankton's requirements, as phytoplankton subsequently release nitrogen and phosphorus as they are remineralized. This so-called " Redfield ratio " in describing stoichiometry of phytoplankton and seawater has become

9460-416: The most at risk from climate change. However coffee can now be grown in the country. 14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, compared to 23% trashed by consumers before eating and 5% leftovers. Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly. Deliberate burning of field residue can cause wildfires in Turkey . Agriculture on steep land can increase

9570-494: The number of different species within a given area. This increase in plankton diversity is traced to warming ocean temperatures. In addition to species richness changes, the locations where phytoplankton are distributed are expected to shift towards the Earth's poles. Such movement may disrupt ecosystems, because phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton, which in turn sustain fisheries. This shift in phytoplankton location may also diminish

9680-504: The ocean. Controversy about manipulating the ecosystem and the efficiency of iron fertilization has slowed such experiments. The ocean science community still has a divided attitude toward the study of iron fertilization as a potential marine Carbon Dioxide Removal (mCDR) approach. Phytoplankton depend on B vitamins for survival. Areas in the ocean have been identified as having a major lack of some B Vitamins, and correspondingly, phytoplankton. The effects of anthropogenic warming on

9790-513: The oceans such as the Southern Ocean , phytoplankton are often limited by the lack of the micronutrient iron . This has led to some scientists advocating iron fertilization as a means to counteract the accumulation of human-produced carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere . Large-scale experiments have added iron (usually as salts such as ferrous sulfate ) to the oceans to promote phytoplankton growth and draw atmospheric CO 2 into

9900-422: The oxygen production despite amounting to only ~1% of global plant biomass. In comparison with terrestrial plants, marine phytoplankton are distributed over a larger surface area, are exposed to less seasonal variation and have markedly faster turnover rates than trees (days versus decades). Therefore, phytoplankton respond rapidly on a global scale to climate variations. These characteristics are important when one

10010-428: The oxygen production, despite amounting to only about 1% of the global plant biomass. Phytoplankton are very diverse, comprising photosynthesizing bacteria ( cyanobacteria ) and various unicellular protist groups (notably the diatoms ). Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye . However, when present in high enough numbers, some varieties may be noticeable as colored patches on

10120-434: The past century, but these conclusions have been questioned because of the limited availability of long-term phytoplankton data, methodological differences in data generation and the large annual and decadal variability in phytoplankton production. Moreover, other studies suggest a global increase in oceanic phytoplankton production and changes in specific regions or specific phytoplankton groups. The global Sea Ice Index

10230-487: The poles. Phytoplankton release dissolved organic carbon (DOC) into the ocean. Since phytoplankton are the basis of marine food webs , they serve as prey for zooplankton , fish larvae and other heterotrophic organisms. They can also be degraded by bacteria or by viral lysis . Although some phytoplankton cells, such as dinoflagellates , are able to migrate vertically, they are still incapable of actively moving against currents, so they slowly sink and ultimately fertilize

10340-839: The population of cloud condensation nuclei , mostly leading to increased cloud cover and cloud albedo according to the so-called CLAW hypothesis . Different types of phytoplankton support different trophic levels within varying ecosystems. In oligotrophic oceanic regions such as the Sargasso Sea or the South Pacific Gyre , phytoplankton is dominated by the small sized cells, called picoplankton and nanoplankton (also referred to as picoflagellates and nanoflagellates), mostly composed of cyanobacteria ( Prochlorococcus , Synechococcus ) and picoeucaryotes such as Micromonas . Within more productive ecosystems, dominated by upwelling or high terrestrial inputs, larger dinoflagellates are

10450-445: The risk of flooding. In 2020 over 900 thousand tonnes of ammonia was emitted . At around 1300 m freshwater per person per year Turkey is water-stressed and at risk of water scarcity, mainly due to wasteful irrigation . Water pricing is being considered. Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped, showing that high-risk regions are Karapınar , Aralık , Ceylanpınar and Lake Tuz basins. Solar power

10560-570: The role of phytoplankton aerosol emissions on Earth's energy budget. NAAMES was designed to target specific phases of the annual phytoplankton cycle: minimum, climax and the intermediary decreasing and increasing biomass, in order to resolve debates on the timing of bloom formations and the patterns driving annual bloom re-creation. The NAAMES project also investigated the quantity, size, and composition of aerosols generated by primary production in order to understand how phytoplankton bloom cycles affect cloud formations and climate. Phytoplankton are

10670-488: The seafloor with dead cells and detritus . Phytoplankton are crucially dependent on a number of nutrients . These are primarily macronutrients such as nitrate , phosphate or silicic acid , which are required in relatively large quantities for growth. Their availability in the surface ocean is governed by the balance between the so-called biological pump and upwelling of deep, nutrient-rich waters. The stoichiometric nutrient composition of phytoplankton drives — and

10780-537: The south of the delta, which is in Ondokuzmayis , Bafra and Alacam districts. Bafra, with about 150,000 people, is the only town but there are more than 30 villages. A canyon cut into the previous delta platform during the Last Glacial Period has filled, and the delta is now a quaternary plain. Most soil is hydromorphic, most soil is alluvium , the soil is Cambisol or Kastanozem , and there are dunes on

10890-432: The structure of the phytoplankton, such as a significant reduction in biomass and phytoplankton density, particularly during El Nino phases can occur. The sensitivity of phytoplankton to environmental changes is why they are often used as indicators of estuarine and coastal ecological condition and health. To study these events satellite ocean color observations are used to observe these changes. Satellite images help to have

11000-400: The summer. Frogs climb on them to catch flies. The dunes further from the coast have more kinds of plants. And dunal hills, which are far from the coast, have bushes such as prickly juniper . Some sheep have caused damage in the dunes. The land is one of the most fertile plains for agriculture in Turkey . There are more buffalo than anywhere else in the country, and they are important for

11110-449: The top export earners. Much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı . Turkey produces most of the world's oregano, and garlic is grown. Opium is grown for medicines . There are about 150 thousand sq km of pasture . Much more meat is produced from cattle than sheep. A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq . Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year. The meat and milk board  [ tr ] regulates

11220-446: The various environmental factors that together affect phytoplankton productivity . All of these factors are expected to undergo significant changes in the future ocean due to global change. Global warming simulations predict oceanic temperature increase; dramatic changes in oceanic stratification , circulation and changes in cloud cover and sea ice, resulting in an increased light supply to the ocean surface. Also, reduced nutrient supply

11330-471: The water surface due to the presence of chlorophyll within their cells and accessory pigments (such as phycobiliproteins or xanthophylls ) in some species. Phytoplankton are photosynthesizing microscopic protists and bacteria that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of marine and fresh water bodies of water on Earth. Paralleling plants on land, phytoplankton undertake primary production in water, creating organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in

11440-616: The water. Phytoplankton form the base of — and sustain — the aquatic food web , and are crucial players in the Earth's carbon cycle . Phytoplankton are very diverse, comprising photosynthesizing bacteria ( cyanobacteria ) and various unicellular protist groups (notably the diatoms ). Many other organism groups formally named as phytoplankton, including coccolithophores and dinoflagellates , are now no longer included as they are not only phototrophic but can also eat. These organisms are now more correctly termed  mixoplankton . This recognition has important consequences for how we view

11550-471: The wavelength of light different efficiently and the light is not a single ecological resource but a multitude of resources depending on its spectral composition. By that it was found that changes in the spectrum of light alone can alter natural phytoplankton communities even if the same intensity is available. For growth, phytoplankton cells additionally depend on nutrients, which enter the ocean by rivers, continental weathering, and glacial ice meltwater on

11660-478: The west and centre of the country, in 1933 opium growing was strictly controlled. In the 20th century growing tobacco was economically important in provinces such as Samsun , and was supported by the state , but in the early 21st century it was discouraged by governments keen to reduce smoking in Turkey . During the early 21st century farmers shifted to growing more profitable crops such as fruit and vegetables, instead of wheat and corn. Half of Turkey's land

11770-402: The world ocean using ocean-colour data from satellites, and found the calorific value of phytoplankton to vary considerably across different oceanic regions and between different time of the year. The production of phytoplankton under artificial conditions is itself a form of aquaculture. Phytoplankton is cultured for a variety of purposes, including foodstock for other aquacultured organisms,

11880-540: The world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported. Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.16 kg each a year, or almost four glasses a day. Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas. There are about a thousand species of herbs, medicines and spices, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves , sage , aniseed and cumin being

11990-490: Was a major crop on the higher lands and there is a tobacco museum in Bafra . Medicinal leeches were collected. There was reed cutting. Festivals included a stork feast, spring release of water buffaloes, and sheep breeding. Traditionally it is considered sinful to kill certain animals and plants always or at certain times of year. In the 1950s and 1960s woodland was felled, sometimes to make fields. Drainage works were started in

12100-495: Was government support, mostly market price support, particularly for potatoes, wheat, sunflower seed and beef. Diesel and fertilizer payments were made, which may make the goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2053 more difficult. According to environmental group Doğa the subsidies for water intensive crops such as corn and sugar beet endanger wetlands in Turkey . Farmers are not allowed to export wheat. Despite subsidies farmers' fuel and fertilizer costs increased

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