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58-503: Kwatta is named after a former cocoa plantation located here. It used to be an agriculture area, but due to its close proximity of Paramaribo , it is becoming suburban. In the 1838, the Kwattaweg was built connecting Kwatta with Paramaribo . In the early 21st century, building projects have started in Mattonshoop en Sophia's Lust. The Kwattaweg is the main road in the resort and part of

116-502: A glottal stop . Because of this, the initial letter ’ is often omitted to facilitate transcription and alphabetic structuring. The most widespread phonological process attested in Maya glyphs is the elimination of the underlying vowels in a trisyllabic word. When a sequence of the form CVCVCVC appears as a single word, the second vowel (the nucleus of the second syllable) is elided to form two CVC syllables. Examples: CHUM(mu)-la-ja 'he sits'

174-675: A consonant or a vowel Absolutive pronouns are morphemes suffixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark: Independent pronouns are built with the particle haʔ plus a pronoun of the Absolutive Series. Thus haʔ-en, haʔ-at, haʔ-Ø, haʔ-oʔb’. The resultant forms, influenced by morphophonemic processes, are not predictable. Thus, haʔ-oʔb’ gives haʔoʔb’, but haʔ-at gives hat and haʔ-eʔn gives seemingly hiin. Many verbal roots of classical Maya have been attested. Some of these are: Unlike verbs and positionals, most nouns do not require morphological derivation . For these words,

232-452: A morphologically binding language, and most words in the language consist of multiple morphemes with relatively little irregularity. It shows some regional and temporal variations, which is completely normal considering the long period of use of the language. Even so, the texts make it clear that it is a single, uniform language. Classical Maya shows ergative alignment in its morphology, as well as syntactically in focus constructs. Although

290-776: A relatively high proportion code for polyphenols , which constitute up to 8% of cacao pods dry weight. The cacao genome appears close to the hypothetical hexaploid ancestor of all dicotyledonous plants, and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs. The genome sequence enables cacao molecular biology and breeding for elite varieties through marker-assisted selection, in particular for genetic resistance to fungal , oomycete and viral diseases responsible for huge yield losses each year. In 2017–18, due to concerns about survivability of cacao plants in an era of global warming in which climates become more extreme in

348-520: A tomb at the Maya archaeological site of Rio Azul . As cacao is the only known commodity from Mesoamerica containing both of these alkaloid compounds, it seems likely these vessels were used as containers for cacao drinks. In addition, cacao is named in a hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao is also believed to have been ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes. Cocoa

406-482: Is also an entire class of intransitives that convey the object's spatial position. In addition, the language employs counter words when quantifying nouns and uses a vigesimal number system. Verbs are not conjugated according to tense, but rather are semantically altered by a series of aspect particles. Linguists and epigraphers still debate the accurate reading of classical Maya numerals. Numbers greater than 20 are recorded in classical Mayan inscriptions, as part of

464-532: Is also some evidence that the Maya script may have been occasionally used to write Mayan languages of the Guatemalan Highlands . However, if other languages were written, they may have been written by Chʼoltiʼ scribes , and therefore have Chʼoltiʼ elements. Classic Maya is the principal language documented in the writing system used by the pre-Columbian Maya, and is particularly represented in inscriptions from

522-671: Is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός ( theos ), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα ( broma ), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal , Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya ; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca ; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of

580-601: Is diploid, its size is 430 M bp , and it comprises 10 chromosome pairs (2n=2x=20). In September 2010, a team of scientists announced a draft sequence of the cacao genome (Matina1-6 genotype). In a second, unrelated project, the International Cocoa Genome Sequencing Consortium-ICGS, coordinated by CIRAD, first published in December 2010 (online, paper publication in January 2011), the sequence of

638-445: Is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly 10,200,000 hectares (25,000,000 acres) worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it

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696-464: Is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste . Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group,

754-558: Is home to considerable genetic diversity, and recommends that this area be considered for protection. Other projects, such as the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre , aim to combat cacao diseases and preserve genetic diversity. Phytopathogens (parasitic organisms) cause much damage to Theobroma cacao plantations around the world. Many of those phytopathogens, which include many of the pests named below, were analyzed using mass spectrometry and allow for guiding on

812-500: Is now thought that the codices and other Classic texts were written by scribes, usually members of the Maya priesthood , in a literary form of the Chʼoltiʼ language . It is possible that the Maya elite spoke this language as a lingua franca over the entire Maya-speaking area, but also that texts were written in other Mayan languages of the Petén and Yucatán , especially Yucatec . There

870-458: Is transcribed chumlaj . AJAW-le-le 'lordship' is transliterated ajawlel . Tu-’u-B’AAH 'in itself' is transcribed tu’b’aah . Sa-ku-WINIK-ki 'elder brother' is transliterated saku(n) winik . Like most other Mayan languages, Classic Maya is verb–subject–object and is an ergative–absolutive language . Being polysynthetic , it uses both prefixes and suffixes to show grammatical function. Nouns are not inflected for case or gender . There

928-763: Is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin . There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America . More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study sampled 1241 trees and classified them into 10 distinct genetic clusters. This study also identified areas, for example around Iquitos in modern Peru and Ecuador , where representatives of several genetic clusters originated more than 5000 years ago, leading to development of

986-524: The East-West Link . Kwatta is home to the Gummels Heliport . This Suriname location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . 5°51′22″N 55°15′40″W  /  5.85611°N 55.26111°W  / 5.85611; -55.26111 Cocoa tree Theobroma cacao ( cacao tree or cocoa tree ) is a small (6–12 m (20–39 ft) tall) evergreen tree in

1044-483: The Japanese writing system . The classical Maya consonant system can be represented as follows: The Latin alphabet of the classical Maya transliteration is: ’, a, b, ch, ch’, e, h, i, k, k’ (ꜭ), l, m, n, o, p, p’, s, t, t’, tz, tz’ (ꜯ), u, w, x, y. In Classic Maya, there are five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Long vowels are written double: aa, ee, ii, oo, uu. Furthermore, no word begins with a vowel; these actually begin with

1102-547: The Mayan language family . It is the main language documented in the pre-Columbian inscriptions of the classical period of the Maya civilization . It is also the common ancestor of the Cholan branch of the Mayan language family. Contemporary descendants of classical Maya include Chʼol and Chʼortiʼ . Speakers of these languages can understand many Classic Mayan words. Classic Maya is quite

1160-464: The Petén , and that it was used in inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests. However, Mora-Marín has argued that the traits shared by the Classic Lowland Maya and Chʼoltian languages are retentions rather than innovations, and that the diversification of Chʼolan is indeed Post-Classical . The language of the classical lowland inscriptions would then have been Proto-Cholan. It

1218-638: The Santa Ana-La Florida (SALF) site in what is present-day southeast Ecuador ( Zamora-Chinchipe Province ) by the Mayo-Chinchipe culture before being introduced in Mesoamerica. In Mesoamerica, ceramic vessels with residues from the preparation of cacao beverages have been found from the Early Formative (1900–900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on

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1276-556: The Swedish naturalist Linnaeus published his taxonomic binomial system and coined the genus and species Theobroma cacao . Traditional pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica . These include the Oaxacan beverage known as tejate . Classic Maya language Classic Maya (or properly Classical Chʼoltiʼ ) is the oldest historically attested member of

1334-579: The phonology of the Classic Maya language spoken in the region and at that time, which were also combined or complemented by a larger number of logograms. Thus the expressions of Classic Maya could be written in a variety of ways, represented either as logograms, logograms with phonetic complements , logograms plus syllables, or in a purely syllabic combination. For example, in one common pattern many verb and noun roots are given by logographs, while their grammatical affixes were written syllabically, much like

1392-573: The sacrifice of a dog with cacao-colored markings, additional animal sacrifices, offerings of cacao, feathers and incense, and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica ( Aztec ) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao ( cacahuatl : "bitter water"), in a mountain filled with other plant foods. Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (autosacrifice) and covering

1450-485: The trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory . The flowers are small, 1–2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 13 ⁄ 16  in) diameter, with pink calyx . The floral formula , used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+5 ) G (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees ( Hymenoptera ) or butterflies / moths ( Lepidoptera ), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia biting midges . Using

1508-481: The 3rd century BC until the 13th century, the texts that have survived to the present day were painted or carved in stones, bones, resistant wood, ceramics, shells or stucco. It is possible that much more had also been written on paper, but what little has come to this day is illegible. In places dating from the Classic Period , remains of books have been found in tombs, which would have been placed in chests or next to

1566-734: The Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease-resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's , Nestlé and Mars . Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam

1624-718: The Aztec emperor consumed, and how it was carefully whipped by his attendants beforehand. Examples of cacao beans, along with other agricultural products, were brought back to Spain at that time, but it seems the beverage made from cacao was introduced to the Spanish court in 1544 by Kekchi Maya nobles brought from the New World to Spain by Dominican friars to meet Prince Philip . Within a century, chocolate had spread to France, England and elsewhere in Western Europe . Demand for this beverage led

1682-502: The French to establish cacao plantations in the Caribbean , while Spain subsequently developed their cacao plantations in their Venezuelan and Philippine colonies (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). A painting by Dutch Golden Age artist Albert Eckhout shows a wild cacao tree in mid-seventeenth century Dutch Brazil. The Nahuatl-derived Spanish word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753 after

1740-529: The Gulf Coast of Veracruz , Mexico dates cacao's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC. On the Pacific coast of Chiapas , Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of even earlier cacao beverages, to 1900 BC. The initial domestication was probably related to the making of a fermented alcoholic beverage. In 2018, researchers who analysed the genome of cultivated cacao trees concluded that

1798-480: The Maya region; hieroglyphic texts would have been written in the language of the elite. Stephen Houston, John Robertson, and David Stuart have suggested that the specific variety of Chʼolan found in most southern lowland glyphic texts was a language they called "classical Chʼoltiʼ," the ancestor language of the Chʼortiʼ languages and modern Chʼoltiʼ. They propose that it originated in the western and south-central basin of

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1856-429: The abstract suffix -V (V) l. This is written with the syllabic sign - li , but it can have two allomorphs that are mostly phonologically conditioned, - il for CVC roots and - aal for non-CVC roots. The exceptions to this appear to be lexically determined. Example: lakam-tuun 'wake' > u lakam-tuun-il 'his wake'. Maya literature is among the oldest in the world, spanning two millennia from pre-Columbian antiquity to

1914-539: The area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean-shaped area that encompasses Ecuador , the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This

1972-613: The cacao genome, of the Criollo cacao (of a landrace from Belize, B97-61/B2). In their publication, they reported a detailed analysis of the genomic and genetic data. The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the human genome . About 20% of the cacao genome consists of transposable elements , a low proportion compared to other plant species. Many genes were identified as coding for flavonoids , aromatic terpenes , theobromine and many other metabolites involved in cocoa flavor and quality traits, among which

2030-683: The cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates suggests that many of those protected areas will no longer be suitable for cacao by 2050. It also identifies an area around Iquitos in Peru that will remain suitable for cacao and that

2088-548: The cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage was used as a ritual only by men, as it was believed to be an intoxicating food unsuitable for women and children. Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads ( Classical Nahuatl : xiquipilli ) of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans

2146-437: The cocoa bean used by the Maya . Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish : 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being

2204-537: The cocoa-tree". Cacao ( Theobroma cacao ) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae . In 2008, researchers proposed a new classification based upon morphological , geographic, and genomic criteria: 10 groups have been named according to their geographic origin or the traditional cultivar name. These groups are: Amelonado, Criollo, Nacional, Contamana, Curaray, Cacao guiana, Iquitos, Marañon, Nanay, and Purús. T. cacao

2262-676: The correct approaches to get rid of the specific phytopathogens. This method was found to be quick, reproducible, and accurate showing promising results in the future to prevent damage to Theobroma cacao by various phytopathogens. A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya . Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. The genome of T. cacao

2320-488: The descendant Cholan languages limit this pattern of ergative alignment to sentences in completive aspect, classical Mayan does not show evidence of split ergativity . Its spoken form, the Chʼoltiʼ , from the Manche Chʼol region, is known from a manuscript written between 1685 and 1695, first studied by Daniel Garrison Brinton . This language has become of particular interest for the study of Mayan glyphs , since most of

2378-491: The domesticated cacao trees all originated from a single domestication event that occurred about 3,600 years ago somewhere in Central America. Several mixtures of cacao are described in ancient texts, for ceremonial or medicinal, as well as culinary, purposes. Some mixtures included maize , chili , vanilla ( Vanilla planifolia ), and honey. Archaeological evidence for use of cacao, while relatively sparse, has come from

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2436-495: The family Malvaceae . Its seeds - cocoa beans - are used to make chocolate liquor , cocoa solids , cocoa butter and chocolate . Although the tree is native to the tropics of the Americas , the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2022 was Ivory Coast . The plant's leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–50 cm (4–20 in) long and 5–10 cm (2–4 in) broad. The flowers are produced in clusters directly on

2494-564: The genetic diversity conserved in field genebanks to create new varieties, because cacao has recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored in a conventional genebank. In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by

2552-503: The glyphic texts are written in the classical variety of Chʼoltiʼ, known as Classical Maya by epigraphers , which is believed to have been spoken as a prestigious language form throughout the Maya region during the classic period . During the Classic Period , the main branches of Proto-Mayan began to diversify into separate languages. The division between Proto-Yucatecan (in the north, the Yucatán Peninsula ) and Proto-Cholan (in

2610-538: The hieroglyphic corpus: an Eastern Ch'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands, a western Ch'olan variety spread from the Usumacinta region from the mid-7th century onwards, and a Yucatecan variety found in texts from the Yucatan Peninsula. The reason that only a few linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that they served as prestigious dialects throughout

2668-519: The lowland regions in Mexico and the period c. 200—900. The writing system (generally known as the Maya script ) has some similarities in function (but is not related) to other logosyllabic writing systems such as the cuneiform originating in Sumer , in which a combination of logographic and syllabic signs ( graphemes ) are used. The script's corpus of graphemes features a core of syllabic signs which reflect

2726-399: The morpheme used to derive non-possessed forms is the suffix - Vl , although the vowel for these can vary from word to word, and some words take a suffix - is or - aas . Examples: u-ch’ahb’ 'his penance' > ch’ahb’-il 'penance', y-ohl 'his heart from him' > ohl-is 'heart'. On the other hand, other nouns are generally not possessed and require derivation when possessed, usually with

2784-507: The narrow band of latitudes where cacao is grown (20 degrees north and south of the equator ), the commercial company, Mars, Incorporated and the University of California, Berkeley are using CRISPR to adjust DNA for improved hardiness of cacao in hot climates. The cacao tree, native of the Amazon rainforest, was first domesticated at least 5,300 years ago, in equatorial South America from

2842-436: The natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges produced more fruit than using artificial pollinators. The fruit , called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds , usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp. The seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate , while

2900-421: The present. The Maya used to draw and write on some surfaces that were not intended to be a means of graphic expression. The most abundant preserved works of this type are found within rooms of buildings whose ceilings and walls are preserved. The only place where significant effort has been made to document writing on surfaces is Tikal , Guatemala . From the period of classical Mayan writing, which lasted from

2958-434: The pulp is used in some countries to prepare refreshing juice , smoothies , jelly , and cream . Usually discarded until practices changed in the 21st century, the fermented pulp may be distilled into an alcoholic beverage. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter . The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine , a compound similar to caffeine . The generic name Theobroma

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3016-562: The recovery of whole cacao beans at Uaxactun , Guatemala and from the preservation of wood fragments of the cacao tree at Belize sites including Cuello and Pulltrouser Swamp . In addition, analysis of residues from ceramic vessels has found traces of theobromine and caffeine in early formative vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1100–900 BC) and in middle formative vessels from Colha, Belize (600–400 BC) using similar techniques to those used to extract chocolate residues from four classic period (around 400 AD) vessels from

3074-439: The so-called "lunar series", for example, when describing the number of days that a "lunar month" specifically has (for example, "20 + 9"; "20 + 10") or the count or order of dynasties to be counted. List of numerals: Ergative pronouns are morphemes prefixed to the word (noun, adjective, verb). Their function is to mark: There are two allomorphs of ergative pronouns depending on whether the word to which they prefix begins with

3132-646: The south, the Chiapas highlands and the Petén Basin ) had already occurred in the Classic, when most of the Mayan inscriptions existing were written. Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at Maya sites of the time, and both are commonly known as the "classical Mayan language". Although a single prestigious language was by far the most frequently recorded in extant hieroglyphic texts, evidence of at least three different varieties of Maya has been discovered within

3190-464: The variety, Nacional cocoa bean . This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking

3248-655: Was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC. The Maya believed the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by them. According to Maya mythology , the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane . The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah , an event that included

3306-473: Was found to be better than conventional oven-roasting because it resulted in the same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter time. In 2022, world production of cocoa beans was 5.9 million tonnes , led by Ivory Coast with 38% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (19%) and Indonesia (11%). The pests and diseases to which cacao is subject, along with climate change, mean that new varieties will be needed to respond to these challenges. Breeders rely on

3364-477: Was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. The first European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with Moctezuma in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519. Cortés and others noted the vast quantities of this beverage

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