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63-649: The Sydney Desalination Plant also known as the Kurnell Desalination Plant is a potable drinking water desalination plant that forms part of the water supply system of Greater Metropolitan Sydney . The plant is located in the Kurnell industrial estate, in Southern Sydney in the Australian state of New South Wales . The plant uses reverse osmosis filtration membranes to remove salt from seawater and

126-456: A breakdown or design fault in the sanitation system, or by chemical contaminants. Further examples of contamination include: Examples of chemical contamination include: Most water requires some treatment before use; even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs. Only

189-452: A chronic health risk through buildup of heavy metals although some components like nitrates/nitrites and arsenic can have a more immediate impact. Physical parameters affect the aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may complicate the removal of microbial pathogens. Pesticides are also potential drinking water contaminants of the category chemical contaminants . Pesticides may be present in drinking water in low concentrations, but

252-559: A component of effective policy for health protection." In 1990, only 76 percent of the global population had access to drinking water. By 2015 that number had increased to 91 percent. In 1990, most countries in Latin America, East and South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa were well below 90%. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where the rates are lowest, household access ranges from 40 to 80 percent. Countries that experience violent conflict can have reductions in drinking water access: One study found that

315-523: A conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths deprives 1.8% of the population of potable water. Typically in developed countries , tap water meets drinking water quality standards , even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses for tap water include washing, toilets, and irrigation . Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from

378-433: A desalination plant if required. The probability of dam levels reaching the 30% level is very low, but it is vital to ensure that Sydney's water needs can still be met should this situation occur. In such a situation, a desalination plant would be constructed with a capacity of 125 million litres per day, but this could be increased to 500 million litres per day if required. Having the capacity to draw on desalination means that

441-543: A desalination plant would be undertaken so that, if the drought continued, it would be possible to construct a desalination plant relatively quickly and efficiently. The feasibility study was undertaken during the first half of 2005 and concluded that desalination is a feasible option for water supply management in Sydney. In response to these problems, the NSW Government's 2006 Metropolitan Water Plan identified desalination as

504-575: A farmer might plan for 35 U.S. gallons (130 L) per day for a dairy cow , a third of that for a horse , and a tenth of that for a hog . However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals. According to the World Health Organization's 2017 report, safe drinking water is water that "does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages". According to

567-421: A few large urban areas such as Christchurch , New Zealand have access to sufficiently pure water of sufficient volume that no treatment of the raw water is required. In emergency situations when conventional treatment systems have been compromised, waterborne pathogens may be killed or inactivated by boiling but this requires abundant sources of fuel, and can be very onerous on consumers, especially where it

630-535: A hardship. The WHO/ UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation is the official United Nations mechanism tasked with monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) relating to drinking-water and sanitation (MDG 7, Target 7c), which is to: "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation". John Holland Group The John Holland Group

693-777: A negative effect on child development (both physical and cognitive). Sixty million people are estimated to have been poisoned by well water contaminated by excessive fluoride , which dissolved from granite rocks. The effects are particularly evident in the bone deformations of children. Similar or larger problems are anticipated in other countries including China, Uzbekistan, and Ethiopia. Although helpful for dental health in low dosage, fluoride in large amounts interferes with bone formation. Long-term consumption of water with high fluoride concentration (> 1.5 ppm F) can have serious undesirable consequences such as dental fluorosis , enamel mottle and skeletal fluorosis , bone deformities in children. Fluorosis severity depends on how much fluoride

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756-451: A report by UNICEF and UNESCO , Finland has the best drinking water quality in the world. Parameters for drinking water quality typically fall within three categories: microbiological, chemical, physical. Microbiological parameters include coliform bacteria , E. coli , and specific pathogenic species of bacteria (such as cholera -causing Vibrio cholerae ), viruses , and protozoan parasites . Originally, fecal contamination

819-431: A result. The plant must now operate for at least 14 months, due to contractual reasons, potentially until dam levels reach 70%. On 10 August 2019 it was announced that, two months ahead of schedule, the plant had reached the full production of 250 million litres per day, 15 per cent of Sydney's supply. On 9 January 2020, the NSW Government announced plans to double the size of the plant to produce 500 ML per day. This plan

882-578: A source that is suitable for drinking – called improved water source  – and 71% of the world could access safely managed drinking water that is clean and available on-demand. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination. 1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces . This can result in infectious diseases , such as gastroenteritis , cholera , and typhoid , among others. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of safe water resources

945-481: A source that is suitable for drinking – called improved water sources . In sub-Saharan Africa , access to potable water ranged from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps. By 2015, 5.2 billion people representing 71% of the global population used safely managed drinking water services. As of 2017, 90% of people having access to water from

1008-414: A very strong weather event, described as a tornado, struck Kurnell with high rainfall, hailstones and unusually strong winds, up to 213 kilometres per hour (132 mph). Large areas of the desalination plants' roof was blown off and the control room windows blown out with "water and wind damage in the control room itself." The plants' chief executive Keith Davies stated that there was "significant" damage to

1071-430: A way of securing Sydney's water supply needs in the case of a severe, prolonged drought: Given its total independence of rainfall, desalination can be used to secure supplies in the event of extreme drought. Following detailed investigations, the NSW Government has identified a preferred technology (reverse osmosis), purchased a site, sought planning approval and undertaken substantial preparatory works so that it can build

1134-486: A year. Leakage of untreated and treated water from pipes reduces access to water. Leakage rates of 50% are not uncommon in urban systems. Tap water , delivered by domestic water systems refers to water piped to homes and delivered to a tap or spigot. In the United States, the typical water consumption per capita, at home, is 69.3 US gallons (262 L; 57.7 imp gal) of water per day. Of this, only 1% of

1197-518: Is WASH - standing for water, sanitation and hygiene . The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on the following four health outcomes: diarrhea , acute respiratory infections , malnutrition , and soil-transmitted Helminthiasis (STHs). These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 ("Good Health and Well-being"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on

1260-419: Is atmospheric water generators . Springs are often used as sources for bottled waters . The most efficient and convenient way to transport and deliver potable water is through pipes. Plumbing can require significant capital investment. Some systems suffer high operating costs. The cost to replace the deteriorating water and sanitation infrastructure of industrialized countries may be as high as $ 200 billion

1323-464: Is 140 megawatts (190,000 hp). The wind farm has been designed to produce more than enough energy to operate the desalination plant to cover the days when there is less wind. It will increase the supply of wind energy in NSW by over 700%. It is a massive boost to the renewable energy sector and an environmentally sensible way to offset the power needs of the desalination plant. The Sydney Desalination Plant

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1386-436: Is a major public health goal in developing countries. In 2017, almost 22 million Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards, which could contribute to citizens developing water-borne illnesses . Safe drinking water is an environmental health concern. Bottled water is sold for public consumption in most parts of the world. Improved sources are also monitored based on whether water

1449-625: Is an infrastructure, building, rail and transport business operating in Australia and New Zealand. Headquartered in Melbourne , it is a subsidiary of China Communications Construction . The company was founded in 1949 by John Holland . In 1991 the business was purchased by Janet Holmes à Court 's Heytesbury Pty Ltd . In 2000, Leighton Holdings bought a 70% stake in the company, this was increased to 99% in 2004 and 100% in December 2007. In December 2002,

1512-526: Is available in almost all populated areas of the world, although it may be expensive, and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where drinking water is commonly obtained include springs , hyporheic zones and aquifers ( groundwater ), from rainwater harvesting , surface water (from rivers, streams, glaciers ), or desalinated seawater . For these water sources to be consumed safely, they must receive adequate water treatment and meet drinking water quality standards . An experimental source

1575-601: Is available when needed (5.8 billion people), located on premises (5.4 billion), free from contamination (5.4 billion), and within a 30-minute round trip. While improved water sources such as protected piped water are more likely to provide safe and adequate water as they may prevent contact with human excreta, for example, this is not always the case. According to a 2014 study, approximately 25% of improved sources contained fecal contamination. The population in Australia, New Zealand, North America and Europe have achieved nearly universal basic drinking water services. Because of

1638-647: Is called desalination and is used mainly in dry areas with access to large bodies of saltwater. Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with major increases in life expectancy and improved public health . Water disinfection can greatly reduce the risks of waterborne diseases such as typhoid and cholera . Chlorination is currently the most widely used water disinfection method, although chlorine compounds can react with substances in water and produce disinfection by-products (DBP) that pose problems to human health. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for

1701-535: Is delivered into the City Tunnel connecting Potts Hill Reservoir , in western Sydney, to the Waterloo Pumping Station, in eastern Sydney. Off-take pipes along the length of the City Tunnel mean that, depending on demand, desalinated water will be fed into the drinking water supply throughout much of metropolitan Sydney. In the process, the desalination plant-supplied water will ease the drawdown on water from

1764-427: Is difficult to store boiled water in sterile conditions. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among users in low-income countries, but these suffer from the same problems as boiling methods. Another type of water treatment

1827-719: Is powered using renewable energy, supplied to the national power grid from the Infigen Energy –owned Capital Wind Farm located at Bungendore . The Sydney Desalination Plant is owned by the Government of New South Wales . In 2012, the NSW Government entered into a 50–year lease with Sydney Desalination Plant Pty Ltd (SDP), a company jointly owned by the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan Board (50%) and two funds managed by Hastings Funds Management Limited: Utilities Trust of Australia and The Infrastructure Fund (together 50%). The terms of

1890-513: Is present in the water, as well as people's diet and physical activity. Defluoridation methods include membrane-based methods, precipitation, absorption, and electrocoagulation. Natural arsenic contamination of groundwater is a global threat with 140 million people affected in 70 countries globally. Some well-known examples of water quality problems with drinking water supplies include: Water supply can get contaminated by pathogens which may originate from human excreta , for example due to

1953-458: Is to reach large numbers of low-income households on a sustainable basis. Few POU measures have reached significant scale thus far, but efforts to promote and commercially distribute these products to the world's poor have only been under way for a few years. Solar water disinfection is a low-cost method of purifying water that can often be implemented with locally available materials. Unlike methods that rely on firewood , it has low impact on

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2016-565: The Australian National University studied the project after its completion and determined that "it was a costly decision that did not need to be made while dam levels were high." In 2014, it was reported that the desalination plant was costing the taxpayers $ 534,246 per day as the plant sits idle. This was the price that the NSW Liberal-National Coalition government agreed upon when they set the 50-year lease with

2079-785: The Canberra Light Rail through its Canberra Metro Operations (CMET) joint venture. In July 2020, John Holland became responsible for maintenance of the Glenelg tram line in Adelaide as part of the Torrens Connect consortium. In April 2022, Transdev John Holland (25% owned by John Holland) commenced operating Sydney Bus Region 9 in the Eastern Suburbs under contract to Transport for NSW . In December 2024, another Transdev-John Holland joint venture, Yarra Journey Makers, took over

2142-631: The European Drinking Water Directive and in the United States, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act . China adopted its own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) enacted by Ministry of Environmental Protection in 2002. For countries without a legislative or administrative framework for such standards,

2205-522: The Tasman Sea via intake and outlet tunnels. The plant is connected to the water supply by a pipeline under Botany Bay from Kurnell to Kyeemagh, thence under Kogarah Golf Course, along the northern shore of the Alexandra canal and finally connecting to the Sydney water supply network via City Tunnel near Ashmore street, Erskineville. At Erskineville , the drinking water delivered via the pipeline from Kurnell

2268-517: The World Health Organization publishes guidelines on the standards that should be achieved. The World Health Organization considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right. Contaminated water is estimated to result in more than half a million deaths per year. Contaminated water together with the lack of sanitation was estimated to cause about one percent of disability adjusted life years worldwide in 2010. According to

2331-692: The toxicity of the chemical and the extent of human exposure are factors that are used to determine the specific health risk. Perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic compounds used in a large variety of consumer products, such as food packaging , waterproof fabrics, carpeting and cookware. PFAS are known to persist in the environment and are commonly described as persistent organic pollutants . PFAS chemicals have been detected in blood, both humans and animals, worldwide, as well as in food products, water, air and soil. Animal testing studies with PFAS have shown effects on growth and development, and possibly effects on reproduction, thyroid,

2394-567: The "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene". Diarrhea is primarily transmitted through fecal–oral routes . In 2011, infectious diarrhea resulted in about 0.7 million deaths in children under five years old and 250 million lost school days. This equates to about 2000 child deaths per day. Children suffering from diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight (due to stunted growth ). This makes them more vulnerable to other diseases such as acute respiratory infections and malaria . Chronic diarrhea can have

2457-474: The 2006 Metropolitan Water Plan), the lowest level reached since the drought that preceded the opening of Warragamba, in the 1940s and 1950s. The desalination plant was built by the Blue Water Joint Venture, under contract to Sydney Water. The Blue Water Joint Venture comprised the plant constructor, John Holland Group , and the operator, Veolia Water Australia Pty Ltd. The total approved budget of

2520-701: The 21st century saw significant declines of dam storage levels. The 2000s Australian drought caused the commission of the Sydney Desalination Plant. Except for 1998, inflows into Warragamba Dam , Sydney's main dam were below average from 1992 until 2006. In the lead up to construction, Sydney's dams hadn't been 100% full since 1998. Between January 2004 and July 2007, Sydney's available water storage dropped below 55%. Water supply levels reached their lowest recorded point on 9–10 February 2007 of 33.8% In November 2009, water storage again dropped below 55%. The 2004 Metropolitan Water Plan indicated that planning for

2583-554: The A$ 2.3 billion lease lock Sydney Water into a 50–year water supply agreement with SDP. The operator of the plant is Veolia Water Australia Pty Ltd . The Sydney Desalination Plant is the third major desalination plant built in Australia, after Kwinana in Perth which was completed in 2006 and Tugun on the Gold Coast which was completed in 2009. Sydney summers during the first decade of

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2646-653: The Government will not need to impose drought restrictions on water use that are more stringent than those imposed when dams levels reached 40% in June 2005. On 16 October 2006 the NSW Minister for Planning Frank Sartor signed the approval for Sydney Water to proceed with the construction of the Kurnell Desalination Plant. When operating at full capacity, the Sydney desalination plant was designed to supply up to 15% of

2709-418: The Sydney Desalination Plant to cease production on 2 July 2012. Production will recommence when dam storage levels reach 60% and will remain in production until dam storage levels reach 70%. The desalination plant was turned on on 27 January 2019, and has been given eight months to restart, requiring hiring 20 people and disinfecting the pipes. Sydney residents' water bills are expected to rise by $ 25-$ 30 as

2772-507: The WHO, the most common diseases linked with poor water quality are cholera , diarrhea , dysentery , hepatitis A , typhoid , and polio . One of the main causes for contaminated drinking water in developing countries is lack of sanitation and poor hygiene. For this reason, the quantification of the burden of disease from consuming contaminated drinking water usually looks at water, sanitation and hygiene aspects together. The acronym for this

2835-464: The city's surface storages such as Warragamba Dam. Sydney residents south of Sydney Harbour and as far west as Bankstown are the direct consumers of the desalinated water. Both the tunnels to the sea and the pipeline to the water supply have been built to the capacity of 500 ML per day, so if the plant is ever expanded, the supporting infrastructure is already in place. The plant operated continuously between 2010 and 2012. On 9 December 2011

2898-778: The construction assets of Transfield Holdings were acquired. In November 2012, John Holland Tunnelling was awarded the International Tunnelling Contractor of the Year, for the Northern Sewerage Project in Melbourne. In December 2014, Leighton Holdings agreed terms with China Communications Construction to sell John Holland. The transaction was completed in April 2015 after the Federal Government approved

2961-471: The dam storage level reached 80%. The NSW Minister for Finance and Services Greg Pearce directed the Sydney Desalination Plant to reduce supply to about 90 million litres a day. The plant's performance and increased dam levels mean the original two-year proving period of running the plant at full capacity (250 million litres/day) can end early. When the dam storage level reached 90% capacity, the Minister directed

3024-574: The drinking water supply for Sydney's 2006 population. It was the largest water supply project for Sydney, Australia's biggest city, since Warragamba Dam was opened in 1960 by the Sydney Metropolitan Water Sewerage and Drainage Board. The desalination project was announced in February 2007, when Sydney dam levels dropped to 33.8% of total storage (just 3.8% higher than the adaptive trigger of "about 30% of dam storage levels" foreshadowed in

3087-404: The environment. In many areas, low concentration of fluoride (< 1.0 ppm F) is intentionally added to tap water to improve dental health , although in some communities water fluoridation remains a controversial issue. (See water fluoridation controversy ). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and

3150-528: The high initial investments, many less wealthy nations cannot afford to develop or sustain appropriate infrastructure, and as a consequence people in these areas may spend a correspondingly higher fraction of their income on water. 2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than 10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom, authorities define spending of more than 3% of one's income on water as

3213-402: The immune system and liver. As of 2022 the health impacts of many PFAS compounds are not understood. Scientists are conducting research to determine the extent and severity of impacts from PFAS on human health. PFAS have been widely detected in drinking water worldwide and regulations have been developed, or are under development, in many countries. Drinking water quality standards describes

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3276-420: The matter is resolved. The ability of point of use (POU) options to reduce disease is a function of both their ability to remove microbial pathogens if properly applied and such social factors as ease of use and cultural appropriateness. Technologies may generate more (or less) health benefit than their lab-based microbial removal performance would suggest. The current priority of the proponents of POU treatment

3339-479: The operation and maintenance of the New South Wales Regional Network under a ten-year contract with Transport for NSW , comprising 2,400 route kilometres of operational passenger and freight rail lines and 3,100 route kilometres of non-operational lines. This ceased at the end of 2021 with the contract passing to UGL Rail . In April 2019, John Holland commenced the operation and maintenance of

3402-701: The plant's owners upon privatisation in 2011. To turn off the desalination plant all together would cost an extra $ 50 million. Potable The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres (4.2 US gal) a day may be required. About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water. Water can carry vectors of disease . More people die from unsafe water than from war, then- U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said in 2010. Developing countries are most affected by unsafe drinking water. Potable water

3465-487: The presence of various metal ions , often rendering the water " soft " or " hard ". In the event of contamination of drinking water, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of biological contamination , residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of chemical contamination , residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until

3528-436: The project was $ 1.896 billion and it was delivered on time and in excess of an estimated $ 60 million under this budget at the completion of construction. The final cost of the plant, before it was refinanced by the NSW Government to the private sector, was $ 1.803 billion. The plant was refinanced with a book value in excess of $ 2 billion in early 2012, providing a profit to the government at transaction close. On 16 December 2015

3591-443: The quality parameters set for drinking water. Water may contain many harmful constituents , yet there are no universally recognized and accepted international standards for drinking water. Even where standards do exist, the permitted concentration of individual constituents may vary by as much as ten times from one set of standards to another. Many countries specify standards to be applied in their own country. In Europe, this includes

3654-407: The roof and control room. Repairs were expected to be completed by the end of 2018. The original proposal was to build a plant with a 125ML per day capacity that could be scaled up to 500 ML if necessary. The decision was made before building, that a 250 ML plant would be built instead, although still with the potential to be scaled up to 500 ML. The desalination plant is connected to

3717-621: The sale. Major projects include: As part of the consortium selected to build the Alice Springs to Darwin railway line , John Holland took a 7.5% shareholding in the Asia Pacific Transport Consortium in 2000. John Holland has interests in Metro Trains Melbourne and Metro Trains Sydney that operate the Melbourne suburban train network and Sydney Metro respectively. In January 2012, John Holland commenced

3780-437: The water provided by public water suppliers is for drinking and cooking. Uses include (in decreasing order) toilets, washing machines, showers, baths, faucets, and leaks. As of 2015, American households use an average of 300 gallons of water a day. The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements on domesticated animals are studied and described within the context of animal husbandry . For example,

3843-559: Was announced after dam levels in 2019 fell rapidly to 43.1%. High levels of rainfall since that announcement has resulted in the plans being placed on hold. Part of the Sydney Desalination Plan's cost was the construction of a wind farm to offset the energy usage of the plant with 100% renewable energy . The 67–turbine Capital Wind Farm at Bungendore was built for this purpose and produces approximately 340 gigawatt-hours (1,200 TJ) per year. The generating/ nameplate capacity

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3906-658: Was determined with the presence of coliform bacteria , a convenient marker for a class of harmful fecal pathogens . The presence of fecal coliforms (like E. Coli ) serves as an indication of contamination by sewage . Additional contaminants include protozoan oocysts such as Cryptosporidium sp. , Giardia lamblia , Legionella , and viruses (enteric). Microbial pathogenic parameters are typically of greatest concern because of their immediate health risk. Physical and chemical parameters include heavy metals , trace organic compounds , total suspended solids , and turbidity . Chemical parameters tend to pose more of

3969-599: Was named "Desalination Plant of the Year" at the 2011 Global Water Awards in Berlin. The refinancing of Sydney Desalination Plant won the "Project of the Year Award" at the Infrastructure Partnerships Australia's 2013 National Infrastructure Awards. Water quality concerns regarding the proximity of the seawater inlet to the desalination plant to the nearby sewage ocean outfall. Environmental economists from

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