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75-533: Kulis AGB is named in honor of First Lieutenant Albert Kulis. During a training flight on 14 November 1954 a formation of three F-80Cs led by Lt. Kulis passed in formation over the Goose Bay area, on the west side of Knik Arm. His wing man watched as Lt. Kulis' fighter went into a steep, diving turn and vanished into a cloudbank. Two weeks later, wreckage belonging to the jet was found in the mud at Goose Bay, but sank before it could be recovered. The base opened during

150-453: A peak ground acceleration estimate of 0.14–0.18 g . The earthquake was assigned a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of X ( Extreme ). Shaking was felt across much of Alaska and parts of western Yukon and British Columbia in Canada. The Alaska earthquake was a subduction zone (megathrust) earthquake, caused by an oceanic plate sinking under a continental plate. The fault responsible

225-538: A (scaled) model of the structure on a shake-table that simulates the earth shaking and observing its behavior. Such kinds of experiments were first performed more than a century ago. Only recently has it become possible to perform 1:1 scale testing on full structures. Due to the costly nature of such tests, they tend to be used mainly for understanding the seismic behavior of structures, validating models and verifying analysis methods. Thus, once properly validated, computational models and numerical procedures tend to carry

300-442: A base of a building, their energy flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90%. However, the remaining portions of the incident waves during a major earthquake still bear a huge devastating potential. After the seismic waves enter a superstructure , there are a number of ways to control them in order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for instance: Devices of

375-416: A cost of $ 110 million. The West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center was formed as a direct response to the disaster. Federal disaster relief funds paid for reconstruction as well as financially supporting the devastated infrastructure of Alaska's government, spending hundreds of millions of dollars that helped keep Alaska financially solvent until the discovery of massive oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay . At

450-506: A depth of approximately 15.5 mi (24.9 km). Ocean floor shifts created large tsunamis (up to 220 feet (67 m) in height), which resulted in many of the deaths and much of the property damage. Large rockslides were also caused, resulting in great property damage. Vertical displacement of up to 38 feet (12 m) occurred, affecting an area of 100,000 square miles (260,000 km ) within Alaska. Studies of ground motion have led to

525-429: A heavy damping . It was invented by Bill Robinson , a New Zealander. Heavy damping mechanism incorporated in vibration control technologies and, particularly, in base isolation devices, is often considered a valuable source of suppressing vibrations thus enhancing a building's seismic performance. However, for the rather pliant systems such as base isolated structures, with a relatively low bearing stiffness but with

600-586: A high damping, the so-called "damping force" may turn out the main pushing force at a strong earthquake. The video shows a Lead Rubber Bearing being tested at the UCSD Caltrans-SRMD facility. The bearing is made of rubber with a lead core. It was a uniaxial test in which the bearing was also under a full structure load. Many buildings and bridges, both in New Zealand and elsewhere, are protected with lead dampers and lead and rubber bearings. Te Papa Tongarewa ,

675-624: A major disaster area the day after the quake. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard deployed ships to isolated coastal communities to assist with immediate needs. Bad weather and poor visibility hampered air rescue and observation efforts the day after the quake, but on Sunday the 29th the situation improved and rescue helicopters and observation aircraft were deployed. A military airlift immediately began shipping relief supplies to Alaska, eventually delivering 2,570,000 pounds (1,170,000 kg) of food and other supplies. Broadcast journalist Genie Chance assisted in recovery and relief efforts, staying on

750-504: A major earthquake. A properly engineered structure does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level of damage. Earthquake engineering is a scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels. Traditionally, it has been narrowly defined as

825-804: A massive underwater landslide, resulting in the deaths of 32 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks, and inside the ship that was docked there at the time. Nearby, a 27-foot (8.2 m) tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega , killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there. The survivors out-ran the wave, climbing to high ground. Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier , Seward , Kodiak , and other Alaskan communities, as well as people and property in British Columbia , Washington , Oregon , and California . Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan . Evidence of motion directly related to

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900-513: A new petroleum operations facility on base. In 1990 Kulis became host to an additional squadron, as the 176th Wing added the 210th Rescue Squadron with six HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters and four HC-130s —a specialized combat search-and-rescue variant of the C-130. In 2005, the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission listed Kulis as one of the bases recommended for closure . In 2011,

975-485: A real event. Sometimes earthquake simulation is understood as a re-creation of local effects of a strong earth shaking. Theoretical or experimental evaluation of anticipated seismic performance mostly requires a structure simulation which is based on the concept of structural likeness or similarity. Similarity is some degree of analogy or resemblance between two or more objects. The notion of similarity rests either on exact or approximate repetitions of patterns in

1050-491: A report on May 8, 1964, just a little more than a month after the earthquake. The United States military, which has a large active presence in Alaska, also stepped in to assist within moments of the end of the quake. The U.S. Army rapidly re-established communications with the lower 48 states, deployed troops to assist the citizens of Anchorage, and dispatched a convoy to Valdez. On the advice of military and civilian leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared all of Alaska

1125-417: A simulation tool development area, a curated central data repository, animated presentations, user support, telepresence, mechanism for uploading and sharing resources, and statistics about users and usage patterns. This cyberinfrastructure allows researchers to: securely store, organize and share data within a standardized framework in a central location; remotely observe and participate in experiments through

1200-399: A structure's expected seismic performance, some researchers prefer to deal with so called "real time-histories" though the last cannot be "real" for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building code or by some particular research requirements. Therefore, there is a strong incentive to engage an earthquake simulation which is the seismic input that possesses only essential features of

1275-468: Is kinematic equivalence when, in the case of earthquake engineering, time-histories of each story lateral displacements of the model and its prototype would be the same. Seismic vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and non-building structures. All seismic vibration control devices may be classified as passive , active or hybrid where: When ground seismic waves reach up and start to penetrate

1350-468: Is a highly seismic land; for centuries the dry-stone construction proved to be more earthquake-resistant than using mortar. People of Inca civilization were masters of the polished 'dry-stone walls', called ashlar , where blocks of stone were cut to fit together tightly without any mortar . The Incas were among the best stonemasons the world has ever seen and many junctions in their masonry were so perfect that even blades of grass could not fit between

1425-750: Is a leader in dissemination of earthquake engineering research related information both in the U.S. and globally. A definitive list of earthquake engineering research related shaking tables around the world may be found in Experimental Facilities for Earthquake Engineering Simulation Worldwide. The most prominent of them is now E-Defense Shake Table in Japan . NSF also supports the George E. Brown Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation The NSF Hazard Mitigation and Structural Engineering program (HMSE) supports research on new technologies for improving

1500-412: Is a relatively recent development. In general, seismic structural analysis is based on the methods of structural dynamics . For decades, the most prominent instrument of seismic analysis has been the earthquake response spectrum method which also contributed to the proposed building code's concept of today. However, such methods are good only for linear elastic systems, being largely unable to model

1575-426: Is conducted in order to evaluate the seismic performance of buildings. Performance evaluations are generally carried out by using nonlinear static pushover analysis or nonlinear time-history analysis. In such analyses, it is essential to achieve accurate non-linear modeling of structural components such as beams, columns, beam-column joints, shear walls etc. Thus, experimental results play an important role in determining

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1650-460: Is expected at a given location on the Earth's surface is estimated by engineering seismology . It is related to the seismic hazard of the location. Earthquake or seismic performance defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions, such as its safety and serviceability , at and after a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is normally considered safe if it does not endanger

1725-439: Is not a problem and there is no required maintenance. They have a rectangular hysteretic loop and as long as the building is sufficiently elastic they tend to settle back to their original positions after an earthquake. Metallic yielding dampers, as the name implies, yield in order to absorb the earthquake's energy. This type of damper absorbs a large amount of energy however they must be replaced after an earthquake and may prevent

1800-546: The Great Alaskan earthquake and Good Friday earthquake , occurred at 5:36 PM AKST on Good Friday , March 27, 1964. Across south-central Alaska , ground fissures, collapsing structures, and tsunamis resulting from the earthquake caused about 131 deaths. Lasting four minutes and thirty-eight seconds, the magnitude 9.2–9.3 megathrust earthquake remains the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in North America , and

1875-524: The KENI air waves over Anchorage for more than 24 continuous hours as the voice of calm from her temporary post within the Anchorage Public Safety Building. She was effectively designated as the public safety officer by the city's police chief. Chance provided breaking news of the catastrophic events that continued to develop following the magnitude 9.2 earthquake, and she served as the voice of

1950-620: The Ship Creek valley near the Alaska Railroad yards also slid, destroying many acres of buildings and city blocks in downtown Anchorage. Most other areas of the city were only moderately damaged. The 60-foot (18 m) concrete control tower at Anchorage International Airport was not engineered to withstand earthquake activity and collapsed, killing William George Taylor, the Federal Aviation Agency air traffic controller on duty in

2025-626: The Turnagain Arm , were destroyed by subsidence and subsequent tidal action. Girdwood was relocated inland and Portage was abandoned. About 20 miles (32 km) of the Seward Highway sank below the high-water mark of Turnagain Arm; the highway and its bridges were raised and rebuilt in 1964–66. Most coastal towns in the Prince William Sound, Kenai Peninsula , and Kodiak Island areas, especially

2100-549: The University of Texas, Austin . The equipment sites (labs) and a central data repository are connected to the global earthquake engineering community via the NEEShub website. The NEES website is powered by HUBzero software developed at Purdue University for nanoHUB specifically to help the scientific community share resources and collaborate. The cyberinfrastructure, connected via Internet2 , provides interactive simulation tools,

2175-607: The ballistic missile detection radar of Clear Air Force Station to go offline for six minutes, the only unscheduled interruption in its operational history. Near Cordova , the Million Dollar Bridge crossing the Copper River also suffered damage, with Span #4 slipping off its pylon and collapsing. The community of Girdwood was also confined to the southern side of the Seward Highway when water rushed into Turnagain Arm and flooded or destroyed any buildings left standing to

2250-399: The resonance frequency oscillations of the structures by means of some sort of spring mechanism. The Taipei 101 skyscraper needs to withstand typhoon winds and earthquake tremors common in this area of Asia/Pacific. For this purpose, a steel pendulum weighing 660 metric tonnes that serves as a tuned mass damper was designed and installed atop the structure. Suspended from the 92nd to

2325-651: The second most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the world since modern seismography began in 1900. Six hundred miles (970 km) of fault ruptured at once and moved up to 60 ft (18 m), releasing about 500 years of stress buildup. Soil liquefaction , fissures, landslides, and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property. Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake-engineered houses, buildings, and infrastructure (paved streets, sidewalks, water and sewer mains, electrical systems, and other man-made equipment), particularly in

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2400-415: The social sciences , especially sociology , political science , economics , and finance . The main objectives of earthquake engineering are: Seismic loading means application of an earthquake-generated excitation on a structure (or geo-structure). It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami . The loading that

2475-562: The 176th Wing vacated Kulis ANGB for new quarters on Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson , north of Anchorage. As noted above, the property now belongs to the State of Alaska. The state is seeking to lease the property. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency [REDACTED] Media related to Kulis Air National Guard Base at Wikimedia Commons Good Friday earthquake The 1964 Alaskan earthquake , also known as

2550-400: The 88th floor, the pendulum sways to decrease resonant amplifications of lateral displacements in the building caused by earthquakes and strong gusts . A hysteretic damper is intended to provide better and more reliable seismic performance than that of a conventional structure by increasing the dissipation of seismic input energy. There are five major groups of hysteretic dampers used for

2625-586: The Alaska National Guard's Camp Carroll, on Fort Richardson . Over the next nine days the Kulis-based 144th Air Transportation Squadron (Medium) would fly 138 sorties with its C-123s and a C-54 Skymaster transport, carrying 2,371 people and more than 300,000 pounds (140,000 kg) of supplies. Kulis received a major upgrade in 1977. More than $ 3 million was invested in a new composite maintenance building, an aerospace ground equipment support building and

2700-468: The base of the building which should substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on a shaking ground. The first evidence of earthquake protection by using the principle of base isolation was discovered in Pasargadae , a city in ancient Persia, now Iran, and dates back to the 6th century BCE. Below, there are some samples of seismic vibration control technologies of today. Peru

2775-574: The beds were filled. Kulis would reprise this role less than six years later, when the Chena River overflowed its banks, causing a devastating flood in downtown Fairbanks in August 1967. Within five hours of the first call for assistance, the first of many C-123 Provider flights began ferrying disaster relief supplies to Fairbanks, and evacuating area residents to Anchorage. Evacuees received food, shelter and medical attention at Kulis; others were housed at

2850-535: The behaviour and response of structural systems subject to earthquake hazards; fundamental research on safety and reliability of constructed systems; innovative developments in analysis and model based simulation of structural behaviour and response including soil-structure interaction; design concepts that improve structure performance and flexibility; and application of new control techniques for structural systems. (NEES) that advances knowledge discovery and innovation for earthquakes and tsunami loss reduction of

2925-455: The building from settling back to its original position. Viscoelastic dampers are useful in that they can be used for both wind and seismic applications, they are usually limited to small displacements. There is some concern as to the reliability of the technology as some brands have been banned from use in buildings in the United States. Base isolation seeks to prevent the kinetic energy of

3000-519: The city built on sandy bluffs overlying " Bootlegger Cove clay " near Cook Inlet , most notably the Turnagain neighborhood, suffered landslide damage. The neighborhood lost 75 houses in the landslide, and the destroyed area has since been turned into Earthquake Park . The Government Hill school suffered from the Government Hill landslide, leaving it in two jagged, broken pieces. Land overlooking

3075-428: The compared items. In general, a building model is said to have similarity with the real object if the two share geometric similarity , kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity . The most vivid and effective type of similarity is the kinematic one. Kinematic similarity exists when the paths and velocities of moving particles of a model and its prototype are similar. The ultimate level of kinematic similarity

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3150-517: The damage done by the earthquake to the city. The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Dr. Ruth A. M. Schmidt , a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage . The team of scientists came into conflict with local developers and downtown business owners who wanted to immediately rebuild; the scientists wanted to identify future dangers to ensure that rebuilt infrastructure would be safe. The team produced

3225-405: The earthquake from being transferred into elastic energy in the building. These technologies do so by isolating the structure from the ground, thus enabling them to move somewhat independently. The degree to which the energy is transferred into the structure and how the energy is dissipated will vary depending on the technology used. Lead rubber bearing or LRB is a type of base isolation employing

3300-512: The earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas . On March 27, 1964, at 5:36 p.m. AKST (March 28, at 3:36 a.m. UTC ), a fault between the Pacific and North American plates ruptured near College Fjord in Prince William Sound. The epicenter of the earthquake was 12.4 mi (20.0 km) north of Prince William Sound , 78 miles (126 km) east of Anchorage and 40 miles (64 km) west of Valdez. The focus occurred at

3375-514: The earthquake. The tsunami then reached Tofino , on the exposed west coast of Vancouver Island , and traveled up a fjord to hit Port Alberni twice, washing away 55 homes and damaging 375 others. The towns of Hot Springs Cove , Zeballos , and Amai also saw damage. The damage in British Columbia was estimated at CA$ 10 million ($ 96 million in 2023 Canadian dollars or $ 91 million in 2023 US dollars). Twelve people were killed by

3450-542: The last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned ( passive ), as AMD for the active , and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers , have been studied and installed in high-rise buildings , predominantly in Japan, for a quarter of a century. However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into the superstructure known as seismic or base isolation . For this, some pads are inserted into or under all major load-carrying elements in

3525-454: The light of new findings, and practical application of the developed theories. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is the main United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all fields of earthquake engineering. In particular, it focuses on experimental, analytical and computational research on design and performance enhancement of structural systems. The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI)

3600-440: The lives and well-being of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed. Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage but without globally collapsing. On

3675-410: The major burden for the seismic performance assessment of structures. Seismic performance assessment or seismic structural analysis is a powerful tool of earthquake engineering which utilizes detailed modelling of the structure together with methods of structural analysis to gain a better understanding of seismic performance of building and non-building structures . The technique as a formal concept

3750-453: The major ports of Seward , Whittier and Kodiak were heavily damaged by a combination of seismic activity, subsidence , post-quake tsunamis and/or earthquake-caused fires . Valdez with 32 dead was not totally destroyed, but after three years, the town relocated to higher ground four miles (6.4 km) west of its original site. Some Alaska Native villages, including Chenega and Afognak , were destroyed or damaged. The earthquake caused

3825-490: The majority of the tsunami damage. Tsunami waves were noted in over 20 countries, including Peru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Japan, Mexico, and in the continent of Antarctica . The largest tsunami wave was recorded in Shoup Bay , Alaska, with a height of about 220 ft (67 m). As a result of the earthquake, 131 people are believed to have died: Nine died as a result of the earthquake itself and another 122 died from

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3900-600: The means for collaboration and discovery to improve the seismic design and performance of civil and mechanical infrastructure systems. The very first earthquake simulations were performed by statically applying some horizontal inertia forces based on scaled peak ground accelerations to a mathematical model of a building. With the further development of computational technologies, static approaches began to give way to dynamic ones. Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical, like shake-table testing , or virtual ones. In both cases, to verify

3975-414: The modeling parameters of individual components, especially those that are subject to significant non-linear deformations. The individual components are then assembled to create a full non-linear model of the structure. Thus created models are analyzed to evaluate the performance of buildings. The capabilities of the structural analysis software are a major consideration in the above process as they restrict

4050-497: The most commonly used hysteretic damper. Friction dampers tend to be available in two major types, linear and rotational and dissipate energy by heat. The damper operates on the principle of a coulomb damper . Depending on the design, friction dampers can experience stick-slip phenomenon and Cold welding . The main disadvantage being that friction surfaces can wear over time and for this reason they are not recommended for dissipating wind loads. When used in seismic applications wear

4125-876: The nation's civil infrastructure and new experimental simulation techniques and instrumentation. The NEES network features 14 geographically distributed, shared-use laboratories that support several types of experimental work: geotechnical centrifuge research, shake-table tests, large-scale structural testing, tsunami wave basin experiments, and field site research. Participating universities include: Cornell University ; Lehigh University ; Oregon State University ; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ; University at Buffalo , State University of New York ; University of California, Berkeley ; University of California, Davis ; University of California, Los Angeles ; University of California, San Diego ; University of California, Santa Barbara ; University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign ; University of Minnesota ; University of Nevada, Reno ; and

4200-465: The north of the highway. Only the ground immediately along the highway and that on the north side of the road dropped, prompting geologists to speculate that Girdwood may rest upon an ancient cliff face covered by thousands of years of sediment and glacial deposits. A 4.5 ft (1.4 m) wave reached Prince Rupert, British Columbia , just south of the Alaska Panhandle , about three hours after

4275-719: The order of the U.S. Defense Department , the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters. Earthquake engineering Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures , such as buildings and bridges , with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in

4350-446: The other hand, it should remain operational for more frequent, but less severe seismic events. Engineers need to know the quantified level of the actual or anticipated seismic performance associated with the direct damage to an individual building subject to a specified ground shaking. Such an assessment may be performed either experimentally or analytically. Experimental evaluations are expensive tests that are typically done by placing

4425-530: The possible component models, the analysis methods available and, most importantly, the numerical robustness. The latter becomes a major consideration for structures that venture into the non-linear range and approach global or local collapse as the numerical solution becomes increasingly unstable and thus difficult to reach. There are several commercially available Finite Element Analysis software's such as CSI-SAP2000 and CSI-PERFORM-3D, MTR/SASSI, Scia Engineer-ECtools, ABAQUS , and Ansys , all of which can be used for

4500-458: The public safety office, coordinating response efforts, connecting available resources to needs around the community, disseminating information about shelters and prepared food rations, passing messages of well-being between loved ones, and helping to reunite families. In the longer term, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led the effort to rebuild roads, clear debris, and establish new townsites for communities that had been completely destroyed, at

4575-406: The purpose, namely: Viscous Dampers have the benefit of being a supplemental damping system. They have an oval hysteretic loop and the damping is velocity dependent. While some minor maintenance is potentially required, viscous dampers generally do not need to be replaced after an earthquake. While more expensive than other damping technologies they can be used for both seismic and wind loads and are

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4650-533: The region for more than a year. Alaska had never experienced a major disaster in a highly populated area before, and had very limited resources for dealing with the effects of such an event. In Anchorage, at the urging of geologist Lidia Selkregg , the City of Anchorage and the Alaska State Housing Authority appointed a team of 40 scientists, including geologists, soil scientists, and engineers, to assess

4725-549: The seismic performance evaluation of buildings. Moreover, there is research-based finite element analysis platforms such as OpenSees , MASTODON, which is based on the MOOSE Framework , RUAUMOKO and the older DRAIN-2D/3D, several of which are now open source. Research for earthquake engineering means both field and analytical investigation or experimentation intended for discovery and scientific explanation of earthquake engineering related facts, revision of conventional concepts in

4800-499: The several landslide zones along Knik Arm . Two hundred miles (320 km) southwest, some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 feet (9 m). Southeast of Anchorage, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 feet (2.4 m), requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark. In Prince William Sound , Port Valdez suffered

4875-520: The spring of 1955 with the 144th Fighter-Bomber Squadron. After an informal vote among squadron members, the base was named after Lt. Kulis. Kulis served as a major center for the coordination of disaster relief in the aftermath of the March 27, 1964 Good Friday earthquake . Guard members quickly converted a base warehouse into a shelter for civilians rendered homeless by the quake with a makeshift dining hall and more than 100 beds. By midnight of that day, 97 of

4950-472: The stones. The stones of the dry-stone walls built by the Incas could move slightly and resettle without the walls collapsing, a passive structural control technique employing both the principle of energy dissipation (coulomb damping) and that of suppressing resonant amplifications. Typically the tuned mass dampers are huge concrete blocks mounted in skyscrapers or other structures and move in opposition to

5025-471: The structural behavior when damage (i.e., non-linearity ) appears. Numerical step-by-step integration proved to be a more effective method of analysis for multi-degree-of-freedom structural systems with significant non-linearity under a transient process of ground motion excitation. Use of the finite element method is one of the most common approaches for analyzing non-linear soil structure interaction computer models. Basically, numerical analysis

5100-478: The study of the behavior of structures and geo-structures subject to seismic loading ; it is considered as a subset of structural engineering , geotechnical engineering , mechanical engineering , chemical engineering , applied physics , etc. However, the tremendous costs experienced in recent earthquakes have led to an expansion of its scope to encompass disciplines from the wider field of civil engineering , mechanical engineering , nuclear engineering , and from

5175-575: The subsequent tsunamis all over the world. Five died from the tsunami in Oregon , and 12 died from the tsunami in Crescent City , California . Property damage was estimated at $ 116 million ($ 0.87 billion in 2023 dollars). Most damage occurred in Anchorage, 75 mi (121 km) northwest of the epicenter. Anchorage was not hit by tsunamis, but downtown Anchorage was heavily damaged, and parts of

5250-438: The tower cab at the time the earthquake began. One house on W. 10th Avenue suffered peripheral damage, but only one block away the recently completed (and still unoccupied) Four Seasons Building on Ninth Avenue collapsed completely, with the concrete elevator shafts sticking up out of the rubble like a seesaw. The hamlets of Girdwood and Portage , located 30 and 40 mi (48 and 64 km) southeast of central Anchorage on

5325-523: The tsunami in or near Crescent City, California , while four children were killed on the Oregon coast at Beverly Beach State Park . Other coastal towns in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and Hawaii were damaged. Minor damage to boats occurred as far south as Los Angeles. Effects of the earthquake were even noted as far east as Freeport, Texas , where tide gauges recorded waves similar to seismic surface waves . Seiches were detected in wells in countries around

5400-432: The use of synchronized real-time data and video; collaborate with colleagues to facilitate the planning, performance, analysis, and publication of research experiments; and conduct computational and hybrid simulations that may combine the results of multiple distributed experiments and link physical experiments with computer simulations to enable the investigation of overall system performance. These resources jointly provide

5475-399: The world, including England, Namibia, and Australia. There were hundreds of aftershocks in the first weeks following the main shock. In the first day alone, eleven major aftershocks were recorded with a magnitude greater than 6.0. Nine more struck over the next three weeks. In all, thousands of aftershocks occurred in the months following the quake, and smaller aftershocks continued to strike

5550-560: Was observed for 285,000 km (110,000 sq mi) from north and west of the sound, in Chugach Mountains, most of Kenai Peninsula, and almost all the Kodiak Island group. Two types of tsunami were produced by this subduction zone earthquake. There was a tectonic tsunami produced in addition to about 20 smaller and local tsunamis. These smaller tsunamis were produced by submarine and subaerial landslides and were responsible for

5625-645: Was the Aleutian Megathrust , a reverse fault caused by a compressional force. This caused much of the uneven ground which is the result of ground shifted to the opposite elevation. Uplift occurred across 520,000 km (200,000 sq mi) from southern Kodiak to Prince William Sound and further east of the sound. The maximum uplift was in Montague Island, where the ground was raised 13–15 m (43–49 ft) relative to sea level. The uplift also affected Kodiak, Sitkalidak, and Sitkinak islands. Subsidence

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