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85-503: Kookal is a Panchayat village of terrace farmers at the far western end of the Palani Hills in Kodaikanal block of Dindigul district , Tamil Nadu state , South India . It is 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Kodaikanal at: 10°17′9″N 77°21′48″E  /  10.28583°N 77.36333°E  / 10.28583; 77.36333 . Elevation is 1,890 metres (6,200 ft). Kookal

170-415: A planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft , either deliberately or unintentionally. It has also been hypothesized that the origin of life on earth is due to introductions of life from other planets billions of years ago, possibly by a sentient race. Projects have been proposed to introduce life to other lifeless but habitable planets in other star systems some time in

255-707: A chairperson, comprises three to five members, ensuring representation and expertise in their respective domains. Just as the tehsil goes by other names in various parts of India, notably mandal and taluka , there are a number of variations in nomenclature for the block panchayat. For example, it is known as Mandal Praja Parishad in Andhra Pradesh , Taluka Panchayat in Gujarat , Uratchi Onriyam in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka , and Panchayat Samiti in Maharashtra . In general,

340-830: A native of East Asia, has been introduced into parts of Europe for ornamental reasons. Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties. The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada's parks. The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions. Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive. Notable examples include water hyacinth , salt cedar , and purple loosestrife . In other cases, species have been translocated for reasons of "cultural nostalgia", which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms. Famous examples include

425-437: A new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations. Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated. The widespread phenomena of intentional introduction has also been described as biological globalization . Positive Introductions Although most introduced species have negative impacts on

510-580: A novel environment (e.g.: in Europe , house sparrows are well established since early Iron Age though they originated from Asia ). Immigrant species are species that travel, sometimes by themselves, but often with human help, between two habitats. Invasiveness is not a requirement. Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an "introduced species". Such species might be termed naturalized , "established", or "wild non-native species". If they further spread beyond

595-458: A parasite or herbivore with it. Some become invasive, for example, the oleander aphid , accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant, oleander . Yet another unintentional pathway of introduction is during the delivery of humanitarian aid in the aftermath of natural disasters. This occurred during relief efforts for Hurricane Maria in Dominica , it was found that the common green iguana ,

680-460: A population decrease. This was seen in the Atlantic Salmon population when high levels of escape from Atlantic Salmon farms into the wild populations resulted in hybrids that had reduced survival. Potential positive effects include adding to the genetic diversity of the population which can increase the adaptation ability of the population and increase the number of healthy individuals within

765-568: A population of over two million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every five years, to provide seats reserved for scheduled castes , scheduled tribes and women, to appoint a State Finance Commission to make recommendations regarding the financial powers of the Panchayats, and to constitute a District Planning Committee. The 4-tier panchayat system  [ bn ] was inaugurated in West Bengal on Mahatma Gandhi's birthday (2 October) in

850-742: A population. This was seen in the introduction of guppies in Trinidad to encourage population growth and introduce new alleles into the population. The results of this introduction included increased levels of heterozygosity and a larger population size . Wide-spread introductions of non-native iguanas are causing devastating effects on native Iguana populations in the Caribbean Lesser Antilles , as hybrids appear to have higher fitness than native iguanas, leading to competitive outcompetition and replacement. Numerous populations have already become extinct and hybridization continues to reduce

935-514: A significant increase in women's participation in local governance. Women are now serving as elected representatives in various positions, including as sarpanch (village head) and panchayat members. Women also demonstrated their positive and enlightened thinking in the panchayat to respond to the government's expectations of women. The supportive actions from their families are encouraging women to attend every PRI (Panchayati Raj in India) meeting. Even though

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1020-449: A species is considered "introduced" when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated. Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental. Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either (1) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or, (2) species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to

1105-479: Is 79%. The area includes four types of ecosystems — swamp , grassland , freshwater lake and shola . Kookal lake runs through the middle of the sholas and surrounding grasslands. The Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History has a field research station here. The Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest has some unique features. An enormous 800-year-old tree, (sp.?) which bears fruit said to be useful for patients with diabetes and high blood pressure,

1190-544: Is a lack of sanitary latrine facilities. Out of a total of 392 homes: 291 use open defection, 44 use a group latrine with regular water supply, 22 use group latrine with regular water supply, 2 use a clean group latrine with regular water supply and a regular sweeper and 33 use a private latrine. There is a Panchayat Union primary school here. Out of 392 children 5–14 years old, 204 are working and not going to school, 7 are going to school and working, 176 are going to school and not working and 5 no response. Household literacy rate

1275-585: Is found here. It is now fenced in and under the care of the Tamil Nadu Forest Department . Very rare single fern trees, jamun and rudraksha trees, 26 species of cinnamon and the Shenbagam flower tree highlight the plant biodiversity. Evergreen rain forest once extended down the valleys and slopes of the Palani Hills almost to the plains. One relatively large patch of evergreen forest survives on

1360-450: Is its elected head. The members of the gram panchayat are elected directly by the voting-age village population for a period of five years. The Gram Panchayat President, also known as Sarpanch often presides over the Sabha meetings. Elected standing committees operate in the panchayat, focusing on specific areas like finance, development, education, health, and welfare. Each committee, headed by

1445-488: Is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health". The biological definition of invasive species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause, only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction. Some argue that "invasive" is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define. From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species (although

1530-462: Is notable for the high biodiversity of the area. Kookal sits at the head of the 126 square kilometres (49 sq mi) Kudiraiyar River basin. In this hilly terrain, topography may account for large variations in rainfall over short distances. A rain gauge at the border of the Kookal forest at 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) recorded rainfall about 50% higher than that of two rain gauges in grasslands at

1615-489: Is seldom understood in the beginning, and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive. Studies have shown that introduced species display a greater likeliness of naturalizing when there is an appropriate environmental match, the plant species are short lived herbs or cultivate from seeds. Peaches , for example, originated in China, and have been carried to much of

1700-560: Is the European rabbit in Australia . Thomas Austin , a British landowner, had rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them. A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard ( Podarcis muralis) to North America by a Cincinnati boy, George Rau, around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy . Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with

1785-572: Is the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia . Caulerpa was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984, off the coast of Monaco . By 1997, it had covered some 50 km . It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes , and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems . The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from

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1870-859: Is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct, done in the interests of conservation. Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland. Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation , which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species. Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. For example, three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of

1955-545: Is the small Indian mongoose ( Urva auropunctata ). Originating in a region encompassing Iran and India , it was introduced to the West Indies and Hawaii in the late 1800s for pest control. Since then, it has thrived on prey unequipped to deal with its speed, nearly leading to the local extinction of a variety of species. In some cases, introduced animals may unintentionally promote the cause of rewilding . For example, escaped horses and donkeys that have gone feral in

2040-410: Is used to describe introduced species that cause ecological, economic, or other damage to the area in which they were introduced. Acclimatized species are introduced species that have changed physically and/or behaviorally in order to adjust to their new environment. Acclimatized species are not necessarily optimally adjusted to their new environment and may just be physically/behaviorally sufficient for

2125-577: The American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America. Collectively, non-native crops and livestock account for 98% of US food. These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that, according to the Congressional Research Service, they probably exceed the costs. Other examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture , aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread. Eurasian carp

2210-672: The Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure. The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests. The rise in the use of genetically modified organisms has added another potential economic advantage to introducing new/modified species into different environments. Companies such as Monsanto that earn much of their profit through

2295-544: The Cuban tree frog , and potentially the Venezuela snouted tree frog were introduced with the former two becoming established. Most accidentally or intentionally introduced species do not become invasive as the ones mentioned above. For instance, Some 179 coccinellid species have been introduced to the U.S. and Canada; about 27 of these non-native species have become established, and only a handful can be considered invasive, including

2380-585: The Indira Gandhi National Park . Woody plants were inventoried in December 2004 in the Kookal Reserve Forest. A total of 2279 stems belonging to 83 species, 68 genera and 40 families were inventoried. Of these, 16 species from 12 genera and 12 families were lianas . The most abundant species (≥ 1 cm dbh) was Psychotria nilgiriensis var. astephana (Rubiaceae), which accounted for 12% of

2465-556: The State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this). Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced "pest" species, that are officially listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species. Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction. Management of invasion pathways are on

2550-575: The United States Environmental Protection Agency is "A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area. Also called an exotic or non-native species". In the broadest and most widely used sense, an introduced species is synonymous with "non-native" and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms; these adequately fit the basic definition given above. However, some sources add to that basic definition "and are now reproducing in

2635-562: The cane toad and red fox in Australia , nutria in North America , Eurasia , and Africa , and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand . In Taiwan , the success of introduced bird species was related to their native range size and body size; larger species with larger native range sizes were found to have larger introduced range sizes. One notoriously devastating introduced species

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2720-562: The Americas may play ecological roles similar to those of the equids that became extinct there at the end of the Pleistocene . The exotic pet trade has also been a large source of introduced species. The species favored as pets have more general habitat requirements and larger distributions. Therefore, as these pets escape or are released, unintentionally or intentionally, they are more likely to survive and establish non-native populations in

2805-675: The Indian subcontinent and is impacting a range of wild species including urban birds. Most introduced species do not become invasive. Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America , the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes , the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe, the beaver in Tierra del Fuego , the muskrat in Europe and Asia ,

2890-433: The Mediterranean region, where it can form monocultures that threaten critical conservation habitats. Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations. Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century. It is a source of resveratrol , a dietary supplement. It can grow in building foundations, threatening their stability, and spreads quite quickly. Mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora ) has spread very widely across

2975-648: The Panchayat council and infrequent meetings of the Sarpanch have decreased the spread of information to villagers, leading to more state regulation. Many Panchayats have been successful in achieving their goals, through cooperation between different bodies and the political mobilization of previously underrepresented groups in India. There is an obstacle of literacy that many Panchayats face for engagement of villagers, with most development schemes being on paper. However, homes linked to

3060-935: The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) through which the self-government of villages is realized. They are tasked with "economic development, strengthening social justice and implementation of Central and State Government Schemes including those 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule." Part IX of the Indian Constitution is the section of the Constitution relating to the Panchayats. It stipulates that in states or Union Territories with more than two million inhabitants there are three levels of PRIs: In states or Union Territories with less than two million inhabitants there are only two levels of PRIs. The Gram Panchayat consists of all registered voters living in

3145-633: The Panchayati Raj System have seen an increase in participation for local matters. The reservation policy for women on the Panchayat councils have also led to a substantial increase in female participation and have shaped the focus of development to include more domestic household issues. In 1992, the 73rd amendment was passed, transforming the role of women in Panchayati raj. The 73rd amendment established reservation of one-third of seats for women in basic village councils. This reservation had led to

3230-665: The Red Sea, or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium. Another troublesome plant species is the terrestrial plant Phyla canescens , which was intentionally introduced into many countries in North America, Europe, and Africa as an ornamental plant. This species has become invasive in Australia, where it threatens native rare plants and causes erosion and soil slumping around river banks. It has also become invasive in France where it has been listed as an invasive plant species of concern in

3315-436: The aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species . This involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread. A special case of introduction

3400-487: The area of a Gram Panchayat and is the organization through which village inhabitants participate directly in local government. Elections for the members of the Panchayats at all levels take place every five years. By federal law, the Panchayats must include members of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in the same proportion as in the general population and at least one-third of all seats and chairperson posts must be reserved for women. Some states have increased

3485-554: The area without a local guide. From Kavunji take the footpath leading to Mannavanur. From there an old footpath leads to the sheep farm. Cross it and reach the Kodaikanal road. Follow the road to Kookal. En route, there are pleasant meadows of the sheep farm. Above Kookal you can see the caves where ancient men were living. Deer are common. Tourists are required to get permission from the Forest Department to visit Kookal or trek in

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3570-554: The area, a representative of the cooperative societies and one from marketing services), and some elected members. However, in Kerala , block panchayat members are directly elected, just like gram panchayat and district panchayat members. The Panchayat Samiti is elected for a term of five years and is headed by a chairman and a deputy chairman. The Panchayats, throughout the years, have relied on federal and state grants to sustain themselves economically. The absence of mandatory elections for

3655-492: The basic units of local administration . Currently, the Panchayati Raj system exists in all states except Nagaland , Meghalaya , and Mizoram , and in all Union Territories except Delhi . Panchayati raj has its origins in India since Vedic period (1700 BCE). Since Vedic times, the village (gram) in the country is considered as the basic unit for regional self-administration. Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayati Raj as

3740-541: The block level, and Zila Parishad at the district level. On 24 April 1993, the Constitutional (73rd amendment) Act of 1992 came into force in India to provide constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. This amendment was extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight states, namely: Andhra Pradesh , Gujarat , Himachal Pradesh , Maharashtra , Madhya Pradesh , Odisha , and Rajasthan beginning on 24 December 1996. This amendment contains provisions for

3825-683: The block panchayat has the same form as the gram panchayat but at a higher level. Membership in the block panchayat is mostly ex-official ; it is composed of: all of the Sarpanchas (gram panchayat chairmen) in the Panchayat Samiti area, the MPs and MLAs of the area, the Sub-District Officer (SDO) of the sub-division, co-opt members (representatives of the SCs, STs and women), associate members (a farmer from

3910-400: The bureaucracy was all male dominated, Gandhi hoped that Panchayati raj could be the framework for a free Indian political order. As a promoter of liberalism, he proposed gram swaraj, or self-contained and autonomous villages, to give women the most rights. The 73rd amendment  was also resisted because reservation of seats meant that high caste people had to accept marginal caste women into

3995-413: The chairpersons/presidents at the intermediate and district levels are elected indirectly from among the elected members. At the village level, the chairperson/president is elected as determined by the state government. Some states use direct elections, while others use indirect elections (elected from among the members) to choose the chairperson of the gram panchayat. For the purpose of representation,

4080-413: The devolution of powers and responsibilities to the panchayats, both for the preparation of economic development plans and social justice, as well as for implementation in relation to 29 subjects listed in the eleventh schedule of the constitution, and the ability to levy and collect appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees. The Act aims to provide a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all states having

4165-539: The economy. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species "invasive" only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause. According to a practical definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. For example, U.S. Executive Order 13112 (1999) defines "invasive species" as "an alien species whose introduction does or

4250-524: The ecosystem they have been introduced to. Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests. They are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown. The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, farmers and others. The formal definition of an introduced species from

4335-578: The ecosystems they enter into, there are still some species that have affected the ecosystem in a positive way. For example, in New Hampshire invasive plants can provide some benefits to some species. Invasive species such as autumn olive, oriental bittersweet, and honeysuckle produce fruit that is used by a handful of fruit-eating bird species. The invasive plants can also be a source of pollen and nectar for many insects, such as bees. These invasive plants were able to help their ecosystem thriving, and increase

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4420-468: The forefront of eliminating unwanted invasive species this would include preliminary steps; educating the public, cooperation from industries and government resources. In Great Britain , the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive. By definition ,

4505-562: The forest areas. Please contact: Government of Tamil Nadu, Tourist Office, Annasalai, Kodaikanal, 624 101, Tamil Nadu, India. PH; 04542- 241675. A trekking map is available from them. Bison Wells Lodge has a panoramic view of the eastern slopes of Kookal ridge. Panchayati raj in India#Gram panchayat sabha Panchayati raj (council of five officials) is the system of local self-government of villages in rural India as opposed to urban and suburban municipalities . It consists of

4590-476: The foundation of India's political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj ("village self-governance"). Instead, India developed a highly centralized form of government. However, this has been moderated by the delegation of several administrative functions to the local level, empowering elected gram panchayats. There are significant differences between

4675-421: The grasslands, affecting both the flora and the fauna of the area. Kookal lake hosts a healthy otter population. The Kookal sholas are noted for 165 species of butterflies, and a number of relatively uncommon birds such as the wood pigeon , Nilgiri pipit and 15 types of dabchicks . Many of these wilderness areas and various wildlife may be seen while trekking in the area of Kookal. It is not safe to trek in

4760-586: The intentionally introduced Harmonia axyridis , multicolored Asian lady beetle . However the small percentage of introduced species that become invasive can produce profound ecological changes. In North America, Harmonia axyridis has become the most abundant lady beetle and probably accounts for more observations than all the native lady beetles put together. Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories, initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control, stock feed, or forestry. Whether an exotic will become an invasive species

4845-805: The introduction of common starlings to North America by the American Eugene Schieffelin , a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society , who, it is rumoured, wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays into the United States. He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890, and another forty in 1891. Yet another prominent example of an introduced species that became invasive

4930-481: The invasive comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi , the dangerous bacterium Vibrio cholerae , or the fouling zebra mussel . The Mediterranean and Black Seas, with their high volume shipping from exotic sources, are most impacted by this problem. Busy harbors are all potential hotspots as well: over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in

5015-542: The native animal's chances of survival. Several introduced exotic trees served as nest sites for resident waterbird species in Udaipur city, India. Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain. Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment, culture, and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin. For example, soybeans , kiwi fruit , wheat , honey bees , and all livestock except

5100-459: The new environment. Adventive species are often considered synonymous with "introduced species", but this term is sometimes applied exclusively to introduced species that are not permanently established. Naturalized species are often introduced species that do not need human help to reproduce and maintain their population in an area outside their native range (no longer adventive), but that also applies to populations migrating and establishing in

5185-479: The north-west edge of the Palani plateau west of the settlement of Kookal. It lies on the flanks and crest of a north–south ridge and is mostly between 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) and 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) elevation. There is also a stunted dry woodland on parts of the ridge crest. Beyond the forest is the most extensive remaining montane grassland wilderness of the Palani Hills, merging with Manjampatti Valley in

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5270-517: The number of native iguanas on multiple islands. In plants, introduced species have been observed to undergo rapid evolutionary change to adapt to their new environments, with changes in plant height, size, leaf shape, dispersal ability, reproductive output, vegetative reproduction ability, level of dependence on the mycorrhizal network , and level of phenotype plasticity appearing on timescales of decades to centuries. It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate

5355-795: The occasion of Dussehra . The system was gradually established all over India. The system was modified in 1992 with the 73rd constitutional amendment. The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee , headed by the Member of Parliament Balwantrai Mehta , was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953), to suggest measures to improve their work. The committee's recommendation

5440-431: The place of introduction and cause damage to nearby species, they are called " invasive species ". The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants. Introduced species are essentially "non-native" species. Invasive species are those introduced species that spread widely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health, other valued resources, or

5525-540: The political empowerment system. Indirectly, this leads to corruption when the government devotes funds to the grassroots panchayat where resources and funds are exploited by bureaucratic channels. Introduced species The impact of introduced species is highly variable. Some have a substantial negative effect on a local ecosystem (in which case they are also classified more specifically as an invasive species ), while other introduced species may have little or no negative impact (no invasiveness), and integrate well into

5610-769: The populated world. Tomatoes are native to the Andes . Squash ( pumpkins ), maize (corn), and tobacco are native to the Americas , but were introduced to the Old World . Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment. Others may become feral, but do not seriously compete with natives, but simply increase the biodiversity of the area. One example would be Dandelions in North America , which have become an essential source of early season nectar for both native and introduced pollinators, and do not meaningfully compete with native grasses or flowers. A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe

5695-436: The potential impact. Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity. Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in

5780-464: The purposes of sport fishing and hunting. The introduced amphibian ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) that threatens the endemic California salamander ( A. californiense ) was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen. Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans, and their escapes have resulted in several introductions, such as feral cats , parrots , and pond slider . Lophura nycthemera ( silver pheasant ),

5865-429: The required minimum proportion for women to one-half. Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated Panchayat at Nagaur on 2 October 1959. The day was selected on the occasion of Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday. Gandhi wanted Gram Swaraj through Panchayati Raj. The system was modified in 1992 with the 73rd constitutional amendment. In India, the Panchayati Raj now functions as a system of governance in which gram panchayats are

5950-452: The respective State Election Commission . Reservation of seats in Panchayati Raj Institutions is a mechanism to ensure representation of marginalized and underprivileged sections of society. These reservations typically include seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women. The percentage of reserved seats varies from state to state based on demographic factors and social considerations. The sarpanch (head of five)

6035-604: The same altitude and northern slope during 1956–1966. Out of 392 households reporting income, the means of livelihood are: casual labour 149, subsistence cultivation 183, artisan 32, salary 14. other 14. 33 cookkal 149 183 32 14 14 0 392 Drinking water for 391 households is supplied from a source: greater than elevation of 100 meter - 13, within Elevation of 50-100 meter - 149, within Elevation of less than 50 meters -127, within House - 102. within an elevation of more than 50 meters. There

6120-519: The selling of genetically modified seeds has added to the controversy surrounding introduced species. The effect of genetically modified organisms varies from organism to organism and is still being researched today, however, the rise of genetically modified organisms has added complexity to the conversations surrounding introduced species. Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment. Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for

6205-553: The stems sampled. Xantolis tomentosa var. elengioides had the largest basal area. Lauraceae was the dominant family accounting for 20% of the stems. About 30% of the species were endemic to the Western Ghats. The Sholas are shrinking and wildlife population are threatened due to monoculture plantations of the Introduced species pine , eucalyptus and wattle . Along with the encroaching trees, ground ferns are also eating into

6290-430: The traditional Panchayati Raj system, that was envisioned by Gandhi, and the system formalized in India in 1992. Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated Panchayati at Nagaur on 2 October 1959. The day was selected on the occasion of Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday. Gandhi wanted Gram Swaraj through Panchayati Raj. Rajasthan was the first state to implement it. Nehru inaugurated Panchayat Raj in Andhra Pradesh on 11 October 1959 on

6375-430: The village panchayat, block panchayat, and district panchayat are divided into constituencies/wards, each represented by an elected member. These members constitute the panchayat council. In some states, there are ex-officio members at the block or district level who are not elected members, such as MLAs , MPs , etc. The term of Panchayati Raj Institutions at all levels is 5 years, and elections to these are conducted by

6460-408: The village, block , and district levels and similar in nature. Zilla Parishad, Zila Parishad, Zilla Panchayat, District Panchayat, etc. Panchayat Samiti, Panchayat union, Mandal Parishad, Mandal Praja Parishad, Anchalik Panchayat, Janpad Panchayat, Kshetra Panchayat, Taluka Panchayat, etc. Gram Panchayat, Gaon Panchayat, etc. The members at all levels of Panchayati Raj are elected directly, and

6545-456: The wild", which means that species growing in a garden, farm, or house may not meet the criteria unless they escape and persist. There are many terms associated with introduced species that represent subsets of introduced species, and the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. Examples of these terms are "invasive", "acclimatized", "adventive", "naturalized", and "immigrant" species. The term "invasive"

6630-614: The wild. Among the popular exotic pets that have become alien or invasive species are parrots, frogs, terrapins, and iguanas. Some species, such as the Western honey bee , brown rat , house sparrow , ring-necked pheasant , and European starling , have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral ; these include rabbits , dogs , ducks , snakes , goats , fish , pigs , and cats . Many water fleas such as Daphnia , Bosmina and Bythotrephes have introduced around

6715-423: The wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases, it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires. In the second case, species intentionally transported into

6800-427: The world as hitchhikers on ships, and arachnids such as scorpions and exotic spiders are sometimes transported to areas far beyond their native range by riding in shipments of tropical fruit. This was seen during the introduction of Steatoda nobilis (Noble false widow) worldwide through banana shipments. Further there are numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water , among them

6885-431: The world, causing dramatic changes in native freshwater ecosystems. When a new species is introduced, the species could potentially breed with members of native species, producing hybrids. The effect of the creating of hybrids can range from having little effect, a negative effect, to having devastating effects on native species. Potential negative effects include hybrids that are less fit for their environment resulting in

6970-587: The world. There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees (AHB), known colloquially as "killer bees") or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carp to the United States. The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug ( Halyomorpha halys ) was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania. Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries

7055-606: The year 1964 by the passage of the West Bengal Zilla Parishad Act in 1963. It consisted of The 3 tier panchayat system was inaugurated in June 1973 by the West Bengal Panchayat Act passed that year. It consists of In different parts of India, the levels of panchayati raj institutions might have different names because of the various languages spoken and cultural differences. However, they usually represent

7140-527: Was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source. The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source, and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry. In Alaska, foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade. About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by

7225-403: Was implemented by NDC in January 1958, and this set the stage for the launching of Panchayati Raj Institutions throughout the country. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’, which finally came to be known as Panchayati Raj. This led to the establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system: Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at

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