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97-502: RAF Krendi was constructed at a time when Malta was under intense aerial bombardment and Malta's Air Command needed to have alternative diversion airstrips on Malta, as the RAF's main operating bases were being bombed. During construction the airfield at Krendi was used as a decoy for other main bases on Malta, switching on runway lighting as enemy bombers approached. The station opened on 10 November 1942 and received its first squadron of Spitfires

194-509: A Lewis gun , drove off the attackers, sending one out of control. When the Germans started using their heavy bombers to attack London and other targets in England during the summer, No. 48 Squadron was tasked with interception duties. Park never saw any bombers on these flights. Park achieved his second aerial victory on 12 August when, flying with Second Lieutenant Arthur Noss as his observer, he

291-511: A Maurice Farman MF11 Shorthorn . The RFC still lacked sophistication in its flight training, and many pilots were sent to France with little more than basic flying skills. Park, having accumulated over 20 hours solo and 30 hours flying, had qualified for his wings and was posted to Rendcomb for instructing duties in March 1917. At Rendcomb, Park accumulated over 100 hours flying time before, in June, he

388-413: A Rumpler reconnaissance aircraft, and sent a DFW C.V out of control. In August Park was wounded during a bombing raid on his squadron's airfield at Bertangles, but managed to help other injured men escape from burning hangars. By November, the strain of command had all but exhausted Park. On 9 November, in a fatigued state, he crashed a Bristol during a test flight. Two days later, the war ended. There

485-541: A French honour, the Croix de guerre , for services in support of the 1st French Army's operations during its time in the Flanders sector of Belgium. On 3 January 1918, Park and his observer, Lieutenant J. Robertson, were flying near Ramicourt on a photo reconnaissance when they were engaged by several German Albatros fighters. Park was able to send one Albatros out of control although his observer's gun jammed. Park eventually evaded

582-678: A course at the No. 2 School of Navigation and Bomb Dropping . In late April, together with a Captain Stewart, he flew a Handley Page 0/400 twin-engined bomber on a 1,880-mile (3,030 km) circuit of the British Isles, completing the flight in 28 hours, 30 minutes. It was the second such flight of its type, designed to foster public awareness of the RAF. The following month, Park had a medical examination which raised concerns about his health owing to his war wounds, as well as nervous and cardiovascular issues. He

679-662: A direction away from the oncoming bombers so as to maximise the time they had to gain the necessary altitude to attack. At the start of the Battle of Britain, generally deemed by British historians to be 10 July (German sources usually cite a date in August), the Luftwaffe' s initial focus was to gain air superiority over the English Channel, before moving to strike targets inland of the coastline. Its targets were shipping convoys moving through

776-591: A few months later. The base was officially inaugurated by AOC Malta Sir Keith Park in 1941; it would remain operational throughout the war in the Mediterranean. In February 1942, RAF Krendi appears to be acting as a decoy site for RAF Luqa. Although a shortage of materials, labour and transport delayed its development, in December 1942 one runway at Krendi came into use, and after this progress became more rapid. Weblog entries from RAF veterans based at RAF Krendi quote

873-522: A good commander of the OUAS, as did a junior instructor, the future flying ace Tom Gleave . Many of the students at OUAS, encouraged by Park, would go on to join the RAF. He was subsequently awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree by Oxford University in recognition of his services. In November 1934, Park was dispatched to Buenos Aires to serve as the Air Attaché for South America. A key part of his role

970-530: A height of 3,000 feet (910 m). The pair destroyed one Albatros, seeing it crash into the sea, and sent three others out of control. In recognition of their successes, the commander of 4th Brigade, Brigadier-General John Becke , recommended Park and Noss for the Military Cross (MC). This was duly awarded, the published citation for Park's MC reading: For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty. During an engagement with several large hostile formations,

1067-695: A messenger. In the trench warfare that followed, Park's achievements were recognised and in July he was commissioned a second lieutenant . He commanded an artillery battery during the August offensive . Afterwards Park took the unusual decision to transfer from the NZEF to the British Army , relinquishing his commission and joining the Royal Horse and Field Artillery . He never explained his motivations for doing so. Attached to

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1164-506: A period of rest, took the position that had been intended for Harris: Senior Air Staff Officer (SASO) to Hugh Dowding, the commander of Fighter Command , which had been formed in July 1936, after the ADGB was split up. Park took up his new appointment in May, and this coincided with a promotion to air commodore. He was now based at Bentley Priory , second-in-command to Dowding. The pair worked towards

1261-433: A pilot of Jasta Boelcke , Franz Pernet, the stepson of General Erich Ludendorff , off Ostend . Flying near Slijpe on 9 September, he and Lindfield drove an Albatros out of control, and two days later Park was promoted to temporary captain . He destroyed an Albatros on 14 September, with Second Lieutenant H. Owen as his observer, and sent another Albatros out of control. Park was the squadron's most successful pilot over

1358-507: A weather radiosonde tracking station in the 1960s. The RAF left in 1979 following a decision not to renew the lease on RAF Luqa. Whilst RAF Krendi's concrete runways have long gone, the outline of the airfield is obvious from the air. The runway is commonly used by vehicles heading towards Wied-iz-Zurrieq (Blue Grotto). Keith Park Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Rodney Park , GCB , KBE , MC & Bar , DFC (15 June 1892 – 6 February 1975)

1455-689: Is general officer commanding (GOC), from where the air force term was derived. An air officer heading a particularly large or important command may be called an air officer commanding-in-chief (AOC-in-C). In the RAF those air officers who command a group are styled air officer commanding, followed by the name of the group. Currently, there are five AOCs: In the IAF , Officers of the rank of Air Commodore who command Wings , Base Repair Depots, Equipment Depots and Air Bases are styled as Air Officer Commanding (AOC). Similarly, Air Vice Marshals commanding Groups (like

1552-536: Is some confusion regarding the number of aerial victories Park achieved during the course of the war; official documentation of No. 48 Squadron states that he and his observers were credited with destroying 9 and sending 11 out of control, a total of 20 German aircraft. Records in the Air Ministry credit him with 14 aerial victories. Park's biographer Vincent Orange considered that Park definitely destroyed 11 aircraft and damaged, if not destroyed, 13 others. Just after

1649-620: The 29th Division as a temporary second lieutenant, Park was posted to No. 10 Battery, of the 147th Brigade, at Helles. He was commander of a 12-pounder naval gun , which was often subject to Turkish counter-fire. He and the rest of his battery was evacuated from Gallipoli to Egypt in January 1916, after the decision was made to abandon the Allied positions there. The battle had left its mark on him both physically and mentally, though later on in life he would remember it with nostalgia. He particularly admired

1746-577: The Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) in August. He was to serve on the staff of the commander of the ADGB, Air Marshal Sir John Salmond , with responsibility for "Operations, Intelligence Mobilization and Combined Training". The ADGB, based at Uxbridge , was a RAF command tasked with the air defence of the United Kingdom, and Park was given considerable latitude in developing his role. After 15 months with

1843-743: The Allied invasion of Sicily . From 1944, he held senior roles in the Middle East and in British India. He retired from the RAF in 1946 as an air chief marshal. Returning to New Zealand, he worked in the aviation industry for a British aircraft manufacturer and then became involved in local body politics in Auckland . He died from heart problems in February 1975. Born in Thames, New Zealand , on 15 June 1892, Keith Rodney Park

1940-647: The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps commander, Sir William Birdwood , whose leadership style and attention to detail was a model for Park in his later career. In March, Park's battery, along with the rest of the 29th Division, was shipped to the Western Front and assigned to a sector along the Somme . Two months later, Park's rank was made substantive. By this time he had an interest in aviation; while in Egypt preparing for

2037-622: The British Army . On the Western Front , he was present for the Battle of the Somme and was wounded. He obtained another transfer, this time to the Royal Flying Corps . Once his flight training was completed, he served as an instructor before being posted to No. 48 Squadron on the Western Front. He became a flying ace , achieving several aerial victories and eventually commanding the squadron. In

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2134-699: The Luftwaffe had switched from attacking the RAF airfields to London itself. The Germans believed that Fighter Command was largely exhausted but the change in tactics was welcomed as both Park and Dowding recognised that it would be a relief for their pilots. At one stage the previous month, pilots and fighters were being lost at a greater rate than they could be replaced and Park had to close Biggin Hill, which had been rendered nonoperational due to bomb damage. The Luftwaffe' s shift to targeting London gave Park valuable breathing space to rebuild his damaged airfields. He also changed his own tactics, using his squadrons to intercept

2231-504: The Luftwaffe . According to his flying logbook, he made at least one operational sortie, on 10 July, to see a shipping convoy during a visit to Lympne airfield . On 16 August, following a visit to Park's headquarters at Uxbridge, Winston Churchill made a speech in which he recited one of his most famous lines, referring to RAF fighter pilots: "Never in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few". Churchill, who thought well of Park, made another visit to Uxbridge

2328-753: The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) in December. He had been trying for some time to obtain a transfer but the senior officers in the 29th Division would not allow this for its personnel serving in France; in later years Park saw his wounding as being particularly fortuitous for his future military career. Park's RFC training commenced at Reading with a course at the School of Military Aeronautics . Much of this initial training involved military basics, such as drill, and theoretical matters, like Morse code . His flight instruction did not commence until he went to Netheravon where, after flying an Avro 504 K with an instructor, he soloed in

2425-595: The United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , Colorado . In the case of a cadet squadron, the AOC is normally a major or a lieutenant colonel . These officers exercise command authority over their cadet units and are expected to train cadets in officership and military matters, advise the cadets who hold leadership positions in the unit, and act as role models for the future officers. Although

2522-654: The University of Otago . By this time Park's parents had separated, his mother moving to Australia and leaving the children in the care of their father. At Otago Boys' High, Park joined the school's Cadet Corps . Completing his education, he found employment at the Union Steam Ship Company . He had always enjoyed boats and within the Park family was known as "Skipper". He went to sea as a purser aboard collier and passenger steamships, initially on vessels sailing along

2619-511: The ADGB, Park was given a squadron command; he proceeded to Duxford to lead No. 111 Squadron , a fighter unit. It operated the Armstrong Whitworth Siskin and Park ensured that the squadron worked extensively, routinely recording high flying hours during his tenure in command. He was involved in an incident on 7 February 1928, when he crashed a Siskin while landing at night. In the ensuing investigation, he conceded his night vision

2716-456: The Air Staff (CAS). In March 1923, Park's health was sufficiently restored that he was returned to flight status and two months later he was posted to Egypt on technical duties. Based at Aboukir , he was accompanied by his wife and the couple's young son. Later in the year, he transferred to Cairo as a technical staff officer at the headquarters of RAF Middle East Command . In October 1924 he

2813-561: The Allied forces that would open up a new front in the Middle East by landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula . Park participated in the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April, going ashore that evening or early the following morning with his battery. The 4th Howitzer Battery was the only such unit at Anzac Cove but had limited ammunition and initially was unable to expend more than a few rounds a day. When not engaged in artillery fire, Park acted as

2910-629: The August–September period and Becke recommended him for the Distinguished Service Order . The senior officer of the RFC in France, Major-General Hugh Trenchard , downgraded this to a Bar to his MC on the basis that this was sufficient reward. The published citation read: For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty in accounting for nine enemy aircraft, three of which were completely destroyed and six driven down out of control. Towards

3007-511: The Battle of Britain, Park served in a training role before being posted to the Middle East as Air Officer Commanding , Egypt, in late 1941. Midway through the following year, he took charge of the aerial defences of Malta, then under heavy attack from the Luftwaffe and the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force). When the siege was lifted Park transitioned Malta's RAF forces from a defensive role into an offensive footing in preparation for

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3104-553: The Battle of Britain, argues that Park was seen at the Air Ministry as being closely aligned with Dowding, implementing the latter's defensive scheme. Dowding, already overdue for his retirement, had been released from his post on 17 November and, once he went, Park had to follow to enable a fresh start at Fighter Command. Douglas took over Fighter Command and Leigh-Mallory No. 11 Group. According to Park, on his final day at No. 11 Group, he had to formally brief Leigh-Mallory's SASO, rather than Leigh-Mallory himself who, contrary to custom,

3201-512: The Big Wing. In the absence of any protest from Dowding, Douglas approved the use of Big Wings over No. 11 Group's area of operations. The tactic was used by No. 12 Group for the rest of October but remained relatively ineffective, being too slow to get to where they were needed. Park continued to raise complaints about the use of Big Wings but Douglas saw this as being a personal objection to No. 12 Group operating in his sector. By late October, it

3298-560: The British guns could be detected. During the battle itself, which commenced on 1 July, the artillery was heavily engaged. On 21 October, while trying to withdraw an unserviceable gun for repair, Park was blown off his horse by a German shell. Wounded, he was evacuated to England and medically certified "unfit for active service", which technically meant he was unfit to ride a horse. After a brief remission recovering from his wounds, recuperating and doing training duties at Woolwich Depot , he joined

3395-511: The Channel as well as the ports in the south of England. It was not until 1 August, when Adolf Hitler ordered the invasion of Britain, that the Luftwaffe escalated its aerial operations, with a view to the invasion commencing in late September. At this time the coastal radar stations were targeted, as well as airfields and aircraft manufacturing facilities. This placed further pressure on Park and how he dispersed his fighter squadrons. An added issue

3492-515: The German airfields in France. Dowding did not approve. At the commencement of the Battle of Britain , Fighter Command had 58 squadrons spread across four fighter groups. As well as Park's No. 11 Group and Leigh-Mallory's No. 12 Group, these included No. 10 Group , which covered the southwest of England, and No. 13 Group , covering the north of England and Scotland. Being responsible for the south-eastern England area, including London, No. 11 Group faced

3589-449: The German bombers and fighters making their way back to France after bombing London. Park later remarked to Alan Mitchell, a New Zealand journalist: "The Hun lost the Battle of Britain when he switched from bombing my fighter-stations to bombing London...". Despite the change in tactics, No. 11 Group was still under pressure. It operated standing patrols to be ready to intercept incoming raids, which were now coming in at higher altitudes. It

3686-622: The J&;K Group & Maritime Air Ops Group) and Advance Headquarters are styled as Air Officer Commanding (AOC). Senior Air Marshals who command the Seven Air Commands are styled as Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief (AOC-in-C) . The Seven appointments are : In the United States Air Force , the term "Air Officer Commanding" is used specifically to refer to the specially selected officers who command cadet squadrons and groups at

3783-498: The United Kingdom from aerial attacks. His senior officer at this time was Air Vice Marshal Hugh Dowding . In January 1931, Park was given command of the RAF station at Northolt , his tenure lasting 18 months. He then became chief instructor at the Oxford University Air Squadron (OUAS). Park was responsible for 75 students, among them Archibald Hope , who later commanded No. 601 Squadron . Hope regarded Park as

3880-444: The actual target. A report that Leigh-Mallory had sent to the Air Ministry, which inflated claims made by No. 12 Group when operating the Big Wing, had found a receptive audience at senior levels of the RAF. Park sent his own report on recent operations during the August–September period, which included critical comments on the Air Ministry's efforts in repairing damaged airfields. These complaints were poorly received. Underlying this

3977-464: The air so he and his controllers made requests to No. 12 Group for cover. In No. 12 Group, Leigh-Mallory encouraged the use of "Big Wings"; this involved assembling three or more squadrons in a formation before they were directed towards approaching German bombers. This took time and often by the time the Big Wing was assembled, the bombers had already attacked their targets and were on their way back to their bases in France. Leigh-Mallory believed that this

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4074-413: The approaching German bombers and them reaching their targets in southeast England meant that Big Wings were not practical. Park preferred greater control over individual squadrons. This allowed him to be more responsive to changes in tactics by the Luftwaffe which might, for example, send one group of bombers to a certain target as a diversion to draw in RAF fighters while another group of bombers attacked

4171-422: The beachhead, Dowding sheltered Park from this influence and left him to his work. In the later stages of Operation Dynamo, which ended on 4 June, weather and the pressure from the advancing Germans forced the evacuation efforts to be concentrated on the times around dawn and dusk, and Park's fighters were able to operate more effectively. Throughout this period, Park not only flew his Hurricane to Dunkirk to see

4268-566: The bulk of the Luftwaffe ' s air strength, at least 1,000 bombers and 400 fighters. To counter this, Park had at his disposal 350 fighters across 22 fighter squadrons and just over 550 pilots. He was also able to draw upon the neighbouring groups for reinforcements as required. Park directed that the fighter squadrons under his control be scrambled against incoming German bombers with the aim of attacking them before they reached their targets, and that engaging fighter escorts should be avoided. Using

4365-661: The coast but later on ships travelling to Australia and islands in the Pacific. He also served as a Territorial soldier in the New Zealand Field Artillery from March 1911 to November 1913. Soon after outbreak of the First World War , Park's employers gave him permission to leave the company and join the war effort. He enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) on 14 December 1914, and

4462-521: The commander of neighbouring No. 12 Group , which covered the Midlands. Park had greater experience with fighters, and most of Leigh-Mallory's career, aside from the three years that he had spent in charge of No. 12 Group, was in training roles. There were already tensions between Park and Leigh-Mallory; in exercises carried out in the summer of 1939, No. 12 Group had not performed as expected and Park, on behalf of Dowding, raised concerns in this respect. At

4559-470: The country's defence. This proved to be fruitless as a firm decision regarding the service was not made. In the meantime Park also sought employment with a New Zealand firm, the Canterbury Aviation Company formed by Henry Wigram , a pioneer of commercial aviation in the country. Park was overlooked for the role. Park went to London Colney to command the training depot there and also went on

4656-564: The defence of British airspace, through coordination of data collected from RDF stations, the Observer Corps , and the fighters themselves. On 20 April 1940 Park took over from Air Vice Marshal William Welsh as commander of No. 11 Group , responsible for the fighter defence of London and southeast England. Promoted to acting air vice marshal the previous month, he had only just recovered from an emergency appendectomy . Park's appointment affronted Air Vice Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory ,

4753-407: The development of an operational defence system for the United Kingdom, the first of its type in the world. This involved improving the operational efficiency of Fighter Command and the integration of radio direction finding (RDF) techniques into the tactical handling of fighters to counter incoming bombers. A key improvement made by Park in the control of RAF fighters over the southeast of England

4850-452: The end of September, No. 48 Squadron moved to the Arras sector, having incurred several casualties in the previous weeks. There, Park, now a flight leader , concentrated on preparing his command, which contained many inexperienced replacement pilots, for aerial combat. It was now involved in less dangerous work, mostly reconnaissance patrols, and casualties were light. In November, he was awarded

4947-495: The first day of the evacuation, but the RAF fighters were heavily outnumbered. They were unable to prevent the bombing of Dunkirk itself, but were able to provide some limited protection of the moles and ships. The following day, under orders from the CAS, Air Chief Marshal Cyril Newall , fighters attempted to provide continuous coverage throughout the day but were unable to do so due to their relatively limited numbers. Park advocated for

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5044-437: The following RAF fighter squadrons as being based at the airfield: No more Spifires or other RAF fighters were based at RAF Krendi after Autumn 1943. After the war, Krendi was one of a number of military facilities retained on Malta by the British due to the island's strategic location. Reduced in terms of operational functionality, in 1953 it would become a vehicle storage area for British Army units. The base would also remain

5141-443: The following month, on 15 September. His visit coincided with the Luftwaffe' s greatest daytime raid on England. Churchill noted the many incoming German aircraft but was reassured with Park's calm reply that RAF forces would meet them. He put up all his aircraft, leaving no reserve, and they were joined by 60 fighters from No. 12 Group. It was the first time that the RAF and the Luftwaffe met in nearly equal numbers. The German attack

5238-454: The ground being refuelled and rearmed. Even with the benefit of radar, Park was still disadvantaged. He usually had only around 20 minutes from when radar detected the buildup of the incoming bombers over the Pas de Calais or Cotentin regions to scramble his squadrons and have them at a suitable height for interception. To help remedy this disadvantage, he often directed his squadrons to take off in

5335-586: The interwar period, Park served with the RAF in a series of command and staff postings, including a period as air attaché in South America. By the late 1930s, he was serving in Fighter Command , as Air Marshal Hugh Dowding 's senior air staff officer. The two worked to devise tactics and management strategies for the air defence of the United Kingdom. Soon after the outbreak of the Second World War, Park

5432-610: The knowledge of its students, mostly senior officers from the British armed forces, in staff, diplomacy and political matters. Park became known for being a questioning student, and demanding of guest lecturers. At the end of the year, he took command of the RAF station at Tangmere , which was home to two fighter squadrons and a bomber unit. In April 1938, he took ill with streptococcal pharyngitis ; this prevented him from taking up his next posting in Palestine , which instead went to Arthur Harris , future leader of Bomber Command . Park, after

5529-400: The move to France, he had requested a flight so that he could assess its suitability to help in observations but was told that aerial reconnaissance was a waste of time. Now, prior to the Battle of the Somme , he learned how useful aircraft could be in a military role, getting a taste of flight by being taken aloft to check his battery's camouflage. He reported back on the ready manner in which

5626-550: The outbreak of the Second World War, Park supported Dowding in his efforts to retain as many fighter aircraft as possible for the air defence of the United Kingdom. This was despite the requests for fighter squadrons to support the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) dispatched to France shortly after the commencement of hostilities. During the Phoney War , there was great urgency in developing and implementing tactics for

5723-443: The plotting tables at his headquarters at Uxbridge, Park had to assess which raids were a real threat and which were intended to draw away RAF fighters. Timing was important; incoming raids needed to be intercepted before reaching their targets. An understanding of what aircraft were available was also critical. He needed to ensure that there were as many as possible in the air to counter the German bombers and to avoid having too many on

5820-489: The pursuing fighters, although his engine was damaged by machine-gun fire and he force landed behind British lines. He was then sent to England for a rest; this proved to be brief for later in January he was posted to Hooton Park to instruct Canadian trainee pilots. Following the commencement of the German spring offensive in late March 1918, Park returned to France as a major to take command of No. 48 Squadron. By this time he

5917-474: The rank of flight lieutenant . He was appointed commander of a store of Handley Page aircraft at Hawkinge . The role did not satisfy him and he was pleased when, in early 1920, he was posted to the newly reformed No. 25 Squadron as a flight commander. At the time, it was the only fighter squadron based in the United Kingdom. Later that year he took command of the School of Technical Training, based at Manston , and

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6014-526: The rifle-calibre machine guns on the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters with heavy machine guns, but was overruled. He was also against the use of the conventional "Vic" formation used by the RAF, in which three fighter aircraft flew in a V-formation, on the basis that these were not suited for monoplanes and wanted to explore alternatives. Despite his efforts the Air Ministry maintained its existing approach to fighter tactics. Following

6111-550: The role, ranging from mixing with military personnel of all ranks to rapid inspections of air bases, proved beneficial in the future. Park was appointed Air Aide-de-Camp to King George VI in early 1937. By this time, he had returned to the United Kingdom and was attending the Imperial Defence College , which was close to Buckingham Palace . The course at the Imperial Defence College was designed to enhance

6208-495: The situation for himself, but also visited RAF airfields and met personnel, both pilots and groundcrew. He was very recognisable, wearing white overalls when flying. This helped foster his reputation within No. 11 Group. He also maintained a desire to switch to the offensive; just two weeks after Dunkirk, he sought to have some Hurricane squadrons refitted as fighter-bombers and used, along with Bristol Blenheims , to make nighttime attack on

6305-405: The subsequent Dunkirk evacuation , codenamed Operation Dynamo, No. 11 Group provided air cover under Park's direction. The RAF fighters were disadvantaged, having to operate over 50 miles (80 km) from their bases in the southeast of England and without the benefit of radar coverage. At best, they had about 40 minutes flying time over Dunkirk. Park operated patrol lines over Dunkirk on 27 May,

6402-544: The support of his wing commander. For the time being, he was posted to command of No. 54 Training Depot at Fairlop , but was deemed fit only for light flying and ground duties. In February 1919 he applied again for a permanent commission in the RAF. The same month his father made an application on Park's behalf to the Minister of Defence in New Zealand for a possible role in the military aviation service that had been proposed for

6499-558: The time Park took command of No. 11 Group, it was perceived that Leigh-Mallory's No. 12 Group would bear the brunt of the German bombing campaign since this area of the British Isles was the closest to Germany. The subsequent invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May changed the threat level for the southeast of England. By 24 May the majority of the BEF, along with French and Belgian troops, had been pushed back and became encircled at Dunkirk. During

6596-479: The two machines with which he was patrolling were put out of action. In spite, however, of being left alone, he continued to attack, and engaged the enemy in so determined a manner that he and his observer between them destroyed one and drove three others down completely out of control. He has performed several other fine feats, and has at all times set a most inspiring example by his dash and tenacity. On 21 August Park, flying with Second Lieutenant W. O'Toole while Noss

6693-531: The unit moved to Frontier Aerodrome just east of Dunkirk . The squadron was equipped with the new Bristol Fighter , a two-seat biplane fighter and reconnaissance aircraft, and carried out patrols and reconnaissance flights. It also escorted bombers attacking German airfields in Belgium. Park had his first encounter with fighters of the Imperial German Air Service on 24 July 1917, when he was engaged by three Albatros D.III scout aircraft near Middelkerke . He and his observer, Second Lieutenant A. Merchant, operating

6790-414: The usage of at least two squadrons at a time in stronger patrols rather than the continuous coverage. This was based on his own observations from flying his personal Hurricane over Dunkirk. His approach was put into effect the next day, sometimes using as many as four squadrons, with greater intervals between patrols. Although there was some pressure from Newall and Churchill for a stronger RAF presence over

6887-405: The war, on 25 November 1918, Park married Dorothy "Dol" Parish at Christ Church in Lancaster Gate . The two had met in October 1917 when Park stayed at the home of a fellow pilot while on leave in London. Parish, born in London, was a nurse during the war. Park had applied for a permanent commission in the Royal Air Force (RAF) earlier in the year, but heard nothing despite his application having

6984-665: Was a New Zealand-born officer of the Royal Air Force (RAF). During the Second World War , his leadership of the RAF's No. 11 Group was pivotal to the defeat of the Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain . Born in Thames , Park was a mariner when he enlisted in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force for service in the First World War. Posted to the artillery, he fought in the Gallipoli campaign , during which he transferred to

7081-521: Was a significant failure and an even larger raid mounted later in the afternoon was also unsuccessful. The date of 15 September subsequently became known as Battle of Britain Day . On the grounds that the Luftwaffe had not yet achieved dominance in the air, Hitler consequently postponed the scheduled invasion of England but this would not become clear to the British for several more weeks. Earlier in September,

7178-410: Was attacked by a pair of Albatrosses while returning to base after a patrol. Sustained gun fire from Noss drove an Albatros out of control. On 16 August, again paired with Noss, the duo combined to send a DFW C.V reconnaissance aircraft out of control. The following day Park and Noss engaged in a prolonged dogfight that began at 15,000 feet (4,600 m) over Slijpe and ended near Ghistelles at

7275-526: Was better vetting of data that made it to the plotting tables on which movement of both friendly and enemy aircraft were shown. Dowding had been resistant to Park's suggestion to filter out some data but became convinced of its merits when Park conducted unauthorised trials and showed the results to Dowding. The plotting tables, now less cluttered, made for more effective decision making. With Dowding's blessing, Park also worked on an air tactics manual for Fighter Command. As part of this he recommended replacing

7372-408: Was clear that the Luftwaffe' s operations were lacking the intensity of previous months and, by the end of the month, the Battle of Britain was deemed to be over. Park's mind turned to the commencement of offensive operations and he made proposals to attack the German airfields in France, identifying that these were vulnerable to surprise attacks prior to sunset. Dowding overruled him, although Douglas

7469-543: Was deemed to be unfit for further service, notwithstanding the record flight he had just made. Park took leave for rest and two months later sought a re-examination. This graded him fit for ground duties although he was still not able to fly. In the meantime, he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross "in recognition of distinguished services rendered during the war". Park was granted his permanent commission in September, with effect from 1 August 1919, with

7566-403: Was flawed and thereafter did not fly at night. Park was promoted to wing commander on 1 January 1929 and posted back to Uxbridge on staff duties two months later. For two years running he helped in the organisation of the air pageants at Hendon, which drew over 100,000 spectators, and he was also involved in the development of systems for controlling the operations of fighter aircraft defending

7663-494: Was given command of No. 11 Group, responsible for the defence of South East England and London. Owing to its strategic significance and geographic location in relation to the Luftwaffe , No. 11 Group bore the brunt of the German aerial assault during the Battle of Britain. Park's management of his fighter aircraft and pilots helped ensure that Britain retained air superiority along the English Channel . Relieved of command after

7760-489: Was increasing tensions between Dowding and the Air Ministry over Fighter Command's ability to deal with the Luftwaffe' s night bombing campaign. Sholto Douglas, the deputy CAS, felt Dowding was not dealing adequately with the situation. On 17 October Dowding and Park attended a meeting, chaired by Douglas, to discuss fighter tactics at the Air Ministry in London. Senior RAF personnel were present, including Leigh-Mallory but so

7857-399: Was justified as the assembled Big Wing would theoretically inflict significant losses on the departing bombers. On several occasions in August, protection was requested from No. 12 Group for Park's airfields at North Weald , Manston and Hornchurch , but they were still bombed due to the time taken to assemble the Big Wing. This led Park to claim to his sector controllers that Leigh-Mallory

7954-413: Was negligent in his responsibilities. Park eventually resorted to directing his requests for cover by No. 12 Group through Fighter Command Headquarters for greater responsiveness. Park was not opposed to the use of squadrons en masse and had used comparable tactics while defending the evacuation of the beaches at Dunkirk a few months previously. He recognised that the short time between the detection of

8051-416: Was not present for the changeover in command. Air Officer Commanding Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) is a title given in the air forces of Commonwealth (and some other) nations to an air officer who holds a command appointment which typically comprises a large, organized collection of air force assets. Thus, an air vice marshal might be the AOC 38 Group. The equivalent term for army officers

8148-590: Was posted to France. The time he had spent in the air at this stage enhanced his survival prospects in aerial combat. On reporting to RFC headquarters in Boulogne , he was advised that he was to be a bomber pilot and sent to a depot pool of pilots at Saint-Omer . This was despite his specialisation in fighter aircraft. After some days without an assignment, he contacted No. 48 Squadron , a fighter unit at La Bellevue; this resulted in Park's posting to that squadron on 7 July. Shortly after Park's arrival at No. 48 Squadron,

8245-519: Was posted to the Field Artillery. He was promoted to corporal in early February 1915. Park departed New Zealand the same month as part of the third draft of reinforcements for the NZEF, destined for the Middle East. On arrival, he was posted to the 4th Howitzer Battery, under the command of Major Norrie Falla . In early April 1915, military planners in London decided that the NZEF should be part of

8342-411: Was promoted to group captain . He travelled throughout the continent, visiting aircraft factories and air bases, and promoting British aircraft, military and civilian. The work was challenging as American aircraft manufacturers dominated the scene and he was not helped by the Air Ministry's commitment to expanding the RAF in preference to making aircraft sales to other countries. The skills he learnt in

8439-406: Was receptive to the proposal. On 7 December, Park was replaced as commander of No. 11 Group, his successor being Leigh-Mallory. The decision had been made late the previous month. Officially, this was because Park needed a rest from the stress of the past several months. Park believed his relief was due to the dispute with Leigh-Mallory. Historian John Ray, in his account of Dowding's handling of

8536-399: Was rested, drove two Albatros scouts out of control. Back with Noss on 25 August, the pair destroyed an Albatros south of Slijpe. On 2 September, with Alan Light, Park had two separate engagements with Albatrosses near Diksmuide ; both aircraft that he and Light fired at were seen to be going down in an uncontrolled manner. On 5 September Park, flying with Air Mechanic H. Lindfield, killed

8633-426: Was subsequently promoted to squadron leader . His health also improved. In April 1922 he was one of twenty officers selected to attend the newly formed RAF Staff College at Andover . Fellow students on the 12-month course included Sholto Douglas , with whom he had clashed the previous year over arrangements for flight demonstrations at an air show, and Charles Portal , both of whom would go on to serve as Chief of

8730-409: Was switched to air staff duties. He became well respected by his commander, Oliver Swann , who advocated for him in 1925 when concerns were raised regarding Park's health. In June 1926, Park and his family, which now included a second son, returned to England. A medical examination at this time graded him fit for duty. At the behest of an acquaintance, Air Commodore Felton Holt , Park was posted to

8827-540: Was the drain on pilots through combat losses and their replacements being inadequately trained. This was somewhat compensated for by transferring flying personnel from squadrons in the other Fighter Command Groups and volunteers from the Fleet Air Arm . He kept in regular contact with his squadrons, often flying his Hurricane to the airfields and addressing those under his command. These visits were important for morale, particularly for those airfields that had been bombed by

8924-529: Was the only surviving pilot from its 1917 ranks. The first few days of his tenure were marked by relocations, as the squadron repeatedly retreated to new sites to stay ahead of the advancing Germans. It eventually settled in at Bertangles , where it remained for some time. Park was well respected by his men, though he tended to avoid close relationships with those under his command. The squadron carried out low-level attacks on German troops and positions, as well as its regular reconnaissance work. The Bristol Fighter

9021-523: Was the relatively junior officer, Squadron Leader Douglas Bader , a firm advocate for the Big Wing. Neither Park nor Dowding had expected this nor thought to invite an officer with a contrary frontline experience. Park, who to some attendees appeared fatigued, found himself having to justify his interception methods and explain why the Big Wing was not an appropriate tactic for his area of operations. Leigh-Mallory countered, stating his desire to help No. 11 Group and promising good response times for assembly of

9118-573: Was the third son and ninth child of Professor James Livingstone Park from Scotland , a geologist and director of the Thames School of Mines, and his wife, New Zealand native Frances Rogers. Park was schooled at King's College in Auckland until 1905. The following year he attended Otago Boys' High School in Dunedin , where his father had moved the family following his appointment as a lecturer in mining at

9215-477: Was therefore more difficult to make out whether such raids were bombers or just a large fighter sweep; Park sought to avoid engagement with the latter. He endeavoured to keep his pilots fresh and rested, arranging for improved facilities and billets away from areas being bombed. As the Battle of Britain progressed, Park had increasing concerns about Leigh-Mallory's handling of No. 12 Group. Often, Park's airfields were left exposed to attack while his squadrons were in

9312-414: Was to facilitate local interest in British aircraft. He had been given notice of his appointment some months before, affording him time to learn Spanish. He was accompanied by his wife but their two children remained in England, attending boarding schools. Park's wife Dol had longstanding connections to Argentina, as members of her family had held diplomatic postings in the country. Soon after his arrival he

9409-435: Was unsuited to the former role, having limited maneuverability at low altitude. At one point in the later stages of the German advance, the squadron was reduced to three operational aircraft, the rest having been damaged or destroyed by ground fire. On 18 May, he and his observer engaged a Pfalz D.III , driving it out of control near Bray . The following month, on 25 June, flying with Second Lieutenant H. Knowles, he destroyed

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