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88-688: Roughly translated, this would be the 'plateau of lakes in the Ville'. In the vicinity of Erftstadt, Brühl and Hürth many small and large lakes have been created due to coal mining . The reforestation of the area was begun in 1920 by planting beech , pine , oak and larch trees. Today, there are about forty lakes that have sprung from the mining operations. List of lakes on the Villen-Seen-Platte : 50°49′10″N 6°51′10″E  /  50.81944°N 6.85278°E  / 50.81944; 6.85278 This North Rhine-Westphalia location article

176-512: A cyclothem . Cyclothems are thought to have their origin in glacial cycles that produced fluctuations in sea level , which alternately exposed and then flooded large areas of continental shelf. The woody tissue of plants is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Modern peat is mostly lignin, with a content of cellulose and hemicellulose ranging from 5% to 40%. Various other organic compounds, such as waxes and nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds, are also present. Lignin has

264-414: A 12% increase from the previous year. This spike in production led to a drop in prices, prompting the government to set a production cap of 606 million short tons in 2020. Domestically, Indonesia implemented a Domestic Market Obligation (DMO), requiring mining companies to allocate 25% of their production for local use at a fixed price of $ 70 per ton. However, due to a reduction in domestic demand in 2020,

352-462: A capacity of 145 MW, inaugurated in November 2023. With over 17,000 islands, Indonesia has great potential for tidal power development. The Alas Strait, a 50km stretch of ocean between Lombok and Sumbawa Island, alone could potentially yield 640 GWh of energy annually from tidal power. As of 2023, despite evidence of great potential, no Indonesian tidal power facilities have been developed. Much of

440-573: A carbon tax is to be imposed on entities producing carbon emissions that have a negative impact on the environment. Based on Law 7/2021, the imposition of the carbon tax is to be carried out by a combination of two schemes, a carbon tax (cap and tax) and carbon trade (cap and trade). In the carbon trade scheme, individual or company ("entities") that produce emissions exceeding the cap are required to purchase emission permit certificates ("Sertifikat Izin Emisi"/SIE) from other entities that produce emissions below

528-487: A fuel. While coal has been known and used for thousands of years, its usage was limited until the Industrial Revolution . With the invention of the steam engine , coal consumption increased. In 2020, coal supplied about a quarter of the world's primary energy and over a third of its electricity . Some iron and steel -making and other industrial processes burn coal. The extraction and burning of coal damages

616-455: A major oil exporter that joined OPEC in 1962, the country has since become a net oil importer despite still being in OPEC until 2008 and for a short time in 2016, making it the only net oil importer member in the organization. Indonesia is also the fourth-largest coal producer and one of the biggest coal exporters in the world, with 24,910 million tons of proven coal reserves as of 2016, making it

704-399: A ministry of renewable energy, improve grid management, mobilize domestic resources to support renewable energy, and facilitate entry for international investors. Continued reliance on fossil fuels by Indonesia may leave its coal assets stranded and result in significant investments lost as renewable energy is rapidly becoming cost-efficient worldwide. In February 2020, it was announced that

792-542: A potential of around 459.91 MW for micro hydropower developments, with only 4.54% of it being currently exploited. Indonesia uses some geothermal energy. According to the Renewable Energy Policy Network's Renewables 2013 Global Status Report , Indonesia has the third largest installed generating capacity in the world. With 1.3 GW installed capacity, Indonesia trails only the United States (3.4 GW) and

880-417: A process called carbonization . Carbonization proceeds primarily by dehydration , decarboxylation , and demethanation. Dehydration removes water molecules from the maturing coal via reactions such as Decarboxylation removes carbon dioxide from the maturing coal: while demethanation proceeds by reaction such as In these formulas, R represents the remainder of a cellulose or lignin molecule to which

968-960: A range of technical, economic, and policy issues which have attracted considerable comment in Indonesia. However, it has proved difficult to formulate policies to respond to the problems. Two new plants are slated to open in 2020, at Dieng Volcanic Complex in Central Java and at Mount Patuha in West Java . On average, low wind speeds mean that for many locations there is limited scope for large-scale energy generation from wind in Indonesia. Only small (<10 kW) and medium (<100 kW) generators are feasible. For Sumba Island in East Nusa Tengarra (NTT), according to NREL, three separate technical assessments have found that "Sumba's wind resources could be strong enough to be economically viable, with

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1056-464: A switch in fuels happened in London in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Historian Ruth Goodman has traced the socioeconomic effects of that switch and its later spread throughout Britain and suggested that its importance in shaping the industrial adoption of coal has been previously underappreciated. The development of the Industrial Revolution led to the large-scale use of coal, as

1144-549: A tenth. Indonesia and Australia export the most, followed by Russia . The word originally took the form col in Old English , from reconstructed Proto-Germanic * kula ( n ), from Proto-Indo-European root * g ( e ) u-lo- "live coal". Germanic cognates include the Old Frisian kole , Middle Dutch cole , Dutch kool , Old High German chol , German Kohle and Old Norse kol . Irish gual

1232-403: A weight basis. This composition reflects partly the composition of the precursor plants. The second main fraction of coal is ash, an undesirable, noncombustable mixture of inorganic minerals. The composition of ash is often discussed in terms of oxides obtained after combustion in air: Of particular interest is the sulfur content of coal, which can vary from less than 1% to as much as 4%. Most of

1320-406: A weight composition of about 54% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 30% oxygen, while cellulose has a weight composition of about 44% carbon, 6% hydrogen, and 49% oxygen. Bituminous coal has a composition of about 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on a weight basis. The low oxygen content of coal shows that coalification removed most of the oxygen and much of the hydrogen

1408-478: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a protected area in Europe is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock , formed as rock strata called coal seams . Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . Coal

1496-449: Is a type of fossil fuel , formed when dead plant matter decays into peat which is converted into coal by the heat and pressure of deep burial over millions of years. Vast deposits of coal originate in former wetlands called coal forests that covered much of the Earth's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) and Permian times. Coal is used primarily as

1584-614: Is advancing bioenergy utilization with initiatives like setting up waste-to-energy plants in 12 cities, implementing co-firing in coal generators, and increasing the use of liquid biofuels. The rise in palm oil production has led to a higher proportion of biofuel blending in diesel, supported by the National Energy Law of 2007, which established blending mandates and subsidy mechanisms. Since 2015, regulations have raised biodiesel 's share in diesel consumption to 30% by January 2020, up from 20% in 2019. The goal for bioethanol blending

1672-577: Is also a cognate via the Indo-European root. The conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called coalification . At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying areas. In these wetlands, the process of coalification began when dead plant matter was protected from oxidation , usually by mud or acidic water, and was converted into peat . The resulting peat bogs , which trapped immense amounts of carbon, were eventually deeply buried by sediments. Then, over millions of years,

1760-648: Is also a critical challenge related to cost. Renewable energy projects is still require large up-front investment and as the electricity price has to be below the Region Generation Cost (BPP) (which is already low enough in some major areas), it renders projects economically unattractive. Indonesia also has large coal reserves and is one of the world's largest net exporters of coal, making it less urgent to develop renewable-based power plants compared to countries that depend on coal imports. The country has been recommended to remove subsidies for fossil fuels, establish

1848-429: Is burned in a turbine). Hot exhaust gases from the turbine are used to raise steam in a heat recovery steam generator which powers a supplemental steam turbine . The overall plant efficiency when used to provide combined heat and power can reach as much as 94%. IGCC power plants emit less local pollution than conventional pulverized coal-fueled plants. Other ways to use coal are as coal-water slurry fuel (CWS), which

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1936-594: Is entirely vertical; however, metamorphism may cause lateral changes of rank, irrespective of depth. For example, some of the coal seams of the Madrid, New Mexico coal field were partially converted to anthracite by contact metamorphism from an igneous sill while the remainder of the seams remained as bituminous coal. The earliest recognized use is from the Shenyang area of China where by 4000 BC Neolithic inhabitants had begun carving ornaments from black lignite. Coal from

2024-455: Is made when metallurgical coal (also known as coking coal ) is baked in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C, driving off the volatile constituents and fusing together the fixed carbon and residual ash. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace . The carbon monoxide produced by its combustion reduces hematite (an iron oxide ) to iron. Pig iron , which

2112-409: Is more abundant, and anthracite. The % carbon in coal follows the order anthracite > bituminous > lignite > brown coal. The fuel value of coal varies in the same order. Some anthracite deposits contain pure carbon in the form of graphite . For bituminous coal, the elemental composition on a dry, ash-free basis of 84.4% carbon, 5.4% hydrogen, 6.7% oxygen, 1.7% nitrogen, and 1.8% sulfur, on

2200-403: Is struggling to reach its renewable target. The lack of adequate regulation supports to attract the private sector and the regulation inconsistency are often cited among the main reasons for the lack of progress. One policy requires private investors to transfer their projects to PLN (the sole electricity off-taker in the country) at the end of agreement periods, which, combined with the fact that

2288-459: Is supplied by a few large producers and a large number of small firms. Top 10 Coal Companies in Indonesia in the industry include the following: Coal production poses risks for deforestation in Kalimantan . According to one Greenpeace report, a coal plant in Indonesia has decreased the fishing catches and increased the respiratory-related diseases. Indonesia vies with Australia and Russia for

2376-530: Is to reach 20% by 2025, starting from a 10% target in 2020. The government intends to further raise biodiesel blending to 40% (B40) and supports the construction of refineries to transform waste bioenergy into biofuels, including bio-based liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and naphtha . Indonesian firms Foreign firms The CO 2 emissions of Indonesia were greater than those of Italy already in 2009. Indonesia's total greenhouse gas emissions including construction and deforestation in 2005 put Indonesia among

2464-581: Is too rich in dissolved carbon, is also produced. Energy in Indonesia#Coal Total energy supply 2021 In 2019, the total energy production in Indonesia is 450.79 million tonnes of oil equivalent , with a total primary energy supply of 231.14 million tonnes of oil equivalent and electricity final consumption of 263.32 terawatt-hours . From 2000 to 2021, Indonesia's total energy supply increased by nearly 60%. Energy use in Indonesia has been long dominated by fossil resources. Once

2552-452: Is used as fuel. 27.6% of world energy was supplied by coal in 2017 and Asia used almost three-quarters of it. Other large-scale applications also exist. The energy density of coal is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram (approximately 6.7 kilowatt-hours per kg). For a coal power plant with a 40% efficiency, it takes an estimated 325 kg (717 lb) of coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year. In 2022, 68% of global coal use

2640-691: The Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), where it formed part of funeral pyres . In Roman Britain , with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD". Evidence of trade in coal, dated to about AD 200, has been found at the Roman settlement at Heronbridge , near Chester ; and in the Fenlands of East Anglia , where coal from

2728-512: The Fushun mine in northeastern China was used to smelt copper as early as 1000 BC. Marco Polo , the Italian who traveled to China in the 13th century, described coal as "black stones ... which burn like logs", and said coal was so plentiful, people could take three hot baths a week. In Europe, the earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On Stones (Lap. 16) by

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2816-466: The Java–Bali grid . In 2022, Indonesia had an electrical capacity of 81.2 GW with a projected capacity of 85.1 GW for 2023. In 2021, Indonesia's total energy supply (TES) comprised 30.3% coal, 28.9% oil, and 14.4% natural gas. Renewable energy sources also added to the mix, with biofuels and waste accounting for 13.8%, wind and solar providing 11.6%, and hydro contributing 0.9%. Indonesia, recognized as

2904-590: The Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and Roman forts , particularly in Northumberland , dated to around AD 400. In the west of England, contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath ), although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became

2992-773: The Paris Climate Agreement 's goal of increasing renewable energy to at least 23% by 2025. Despite substantial progress in electrification , with rates increasing from 67% in 2010 to over 99% in 2020, the country still grapples with issues of reliability and service quality, especially in remote and eastern regions where infrastructure challenges and logistical issues often result in frequent power outages and service disruptions. Indonesia aims to achieve net zero emissions by 2060 or sooner as part of its development goal to become an advanced economy by 2045. Carbon tax provisions are regulated in Article 13 of Law 7/2021 in which

3080-542: The People's Consultative Assembly is preparing its first renewable energy bill. An estimated 55% of Indonesia's population, 128 million people, primarily rely upon traditional biomass (mainly wood) for cooking. Reliance on this source of energy has the disadvantage that poor people in rural areas have little alternative but to collect timber from forests, and often cut down trees, to collect wood for cooking. A pilot project of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Power Generator with

3168-702: The Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal's use for iron -working in the city during the Roman period has been found. In Eschweiler , Rhineland , deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore . No evidence exists of coal being of great importance in Britain before about AD 1000, the High Middle Ages . Coal came to be referred to as "seacoal" in

3256-491: The coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event , where coal is rare. Favorable geography alone does not explain the extensive Carboniferous coal beds. Other factors contributing to rapid coal deposition were high oxygen levels, above 30%, that promoted intense wildfires and formation of charcoal that was all but indigestible by decomposing organisms; high carbon dioxide levels that promoted plant growth; and

3344-444: The steam engine took over from the water wheel . In 1700, five-sixths of the world's coal was mined in Britain. Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s if coal had not been available as a source of energy. In 1947 there were some 750,000 miners in Britain, but the last deep coal mine in the UK closed in 2015. A grade between bituminous coal and anthracite

3432-806: The wind farm 75 MW in Sidenreng Rappang Regency , another wind farm 72 MW in Jeneponto Regency , and Cirata Floating Solar Power Plant in West Java with a capacity of 145 MW which will become the largest Floating Solar Power Plant in Southeast Asia . 2012R = CO 2 calculation criteria changed, numbers updated According to the IEA , energy production increased 34% and export 76% from 2004 to 2008 in Indonesia. In 2017, Indonesia had 52,859 MW of installed electrical capacity, 36,892 MW of which were on

3520-630: The 11th country with the most coal reserves in the world. In addition, Indonesia has abundant renewable energy potential, reaching almost 417,8 gigawatt (GW) which consisted of solar , wind , hydro , geothermal energy , ocean current , and bioenergy , although only 2,5% have been utilized. Furthermore, Indonesia along with Malaysia , have two-thirds of ASEAN's gas reserves with a total annual gas production of more than 200 billion cubic meters in 2016. The Government of Indonesia has outlined several commitments to increase clean energy use and reduce greenhouse gas emissions , among others by issuing

3608-407: The 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253. Initially, the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops, but by the time of Henry VIII , it was understood to derive from the way it

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3696-501: The 75 MW Sidrap, in Sidenreng Rappang Regency , South Sulawesi , which is the biggest wind farm in Southeast Asia. In 2019, Indonesia installed another wind farm with a capacity of 72 MW, in Jeneponto Regency , South Sulawesi. The Indonesian solar PV sector is relatively underdeveloped but has significant potential, up to 207 GW with utilization in the country is less than 1%. However, a lack of consistent and supportive policies,

3784-578: The Carboniferous, and suggested that climatic and tectonic factors were a more plausible explanation, reconstruction of ancestral enzymes by phylogenetic analysis corroborated a hypothesis that lignin degrading enzymes appeared in fungi approximately 200 MYa. One likely tectonic factor was the Central Pangean Mountains , an enormous range running along the equator that reached its greatest elevation near this time. Climate modeling suggests that

3872-587: The Central Pangean Mountains contributed to the deposition of vast quantities of coal in the late Carboniferous. The mountains created an area of year-round heavy precipitation, with no dry season typical of a monsoon climate. This is necessary for the preservation of peat in coal swamps. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants. This coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae. Sometimes coal seams (also known as coal beds) are interbedded with other sediments in

3960-563: The Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC): Among the materials that are dug because they are useful, those known as anthrakes [coals] are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like charcoal [anthrakes]. They are found in Liguria ;... and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road; and they are used by those who work in metals. Outcrop coal was used in Britain during

4048-713: The Indonesian Coal Mining Association requested a temporary suspension of the DMO. Indonesia's coal reserves are substantial, estimated to last over 80 years, with significant deposits located in South Sumatra , East Kalimantan , and South Kalimantan . The country has been focusing on increasing exploration and production, which grew by approximately 105% from 2010 to 2020, driven by robust demand in Asia. In terms of environmental goals, Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN),

4136-479: The Minister for Energy and Mineral Resources sets the consumer price of energy, has led to concern about return on investment. Another issue is related to financing, as to achieve the 23% renewable energy target, it has been estimated that Indonesia needs to invest US$ 154 billion. The state is unable to raise so much capital, while there is reluctance from both potential investors and lending banks to get involved. There

4224-752: The National Energy General Plan (RUEN) in 2017 and joining the Paris Agreement . In the RUEN, Indonesia targets New and Renewable Energy to reach 23% of the total energy mix by 2025 and 31% by 2050. The country also commits to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by 2030 against a business-as-usual baseline scenario, and up to 41% by international support. It also has committed to phasing out coal power by 2040s, although numerous challenges remain Indonesia has several high-profile renewable projects, such as

4312-671: The Philippines (1.9 GW), ahead of Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.9 GW), New Zealand (0.8 GW), Iceland (0.7 GW), and Japan (0.5 GW). The current official policy is to encourage the increased use of geothermal energy for electricity production. Geothermal sites in Indonesia include the Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station and the Kamojang plant, both in West Java . The development of the sector has been proceeding rather more slowly than hoped. Expansion appears to be held up by

4400-460: The absence of attractive tariff and incentives, as well as concerns about on-grid readiness pose barriers to the rapid installation of solar power in Indonesia, including in rural areas. As of early 2023, Indonesia has an installed capacity of 322 MW, and the country has a target of 5 GW by 2030. The country's largest solar plant is the floating solar system at the Cirata Reservoir , with

4488-671: The biofuels and power plants are not having wider environmental impacts such as deforestation or air pollution. The electricity sector in Indonesia, managed primarily by the state-owned enterprise Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), faces significant challenges due to the country's archipelagic nature, which includes over 17,000 islands. By 2020, Indonesia had installed approximately 63.3 gigawatts (GW) of electrical generation capacity, producing around 275 terawatt-hours (TWh) annually, predominantly from fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil, alongside contributions from renewable sources like hydroelectric and geothermal power to align with

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4576-460: The cap. In addition, entities can also purchase emission reduction certificates ("Sertifikat Penurunan Emisi"/SPE). However, if the entity is unable to purchase SIE or SPE in full for the resulting emissions, the cap and tax scheme will apply where entities producing residual emissions that exceed the cap will be subject to carbon tax. Indonesia implemented a carbon tax in April 2022, initially targeting

4664-475: The capacity of 1 Megawatt has been inaugurated in September 2014. Indonesia has 75 GW of hydro potential, although only around 5 GW has been utilized. Currently, only 34GW of Indonesia's total hydro potential can feasibly be utilized due to high development costs in certain areas. Indonesia also set a target of 2 GW installed capacity in hydroelectricity , including 0.43 GW micro-hydro , by 2025. Indonesia has

4752-501: The country, only 22 of which have been explored and exploited. Main oil fields in Indonesia include the following: Indonesia's proved natural gas reserves stood at 49.7 trillion cubic feet in 2021. There is growing recognition in Indonesia that the gas sector has considerable development potential. The Indonesian government is increasingly prioritizing investment in natural gas . However, in practice, investors, especially foreign investors, have been reluctant to invest because many of

4840-497: The energy consumption from the transport sector, for example through the adoption of higher energy efficiency standards for private cars/motorbikes and expanding mass transit networks. Many of these measures would be more cost-effective than the current transport systems. There is also scope to reduce the carbon intensity of transport energy, particularly through replacing diesel with biodiesel or through electrification. Both would require comprehensive supply chain analysis to ensure that

4928-464: The energy in Indonesia is used for domestic transportation. The dominance of private vehicles - mostly cars and motorbikes - in Indonesia has led to an enormous demand for fuel. Energy consumption in the transport sector is growing by about 4.5% every year. There is therefore an urgent need for policy reform and infrastructure investment to enhance the energy efficiency of transport, particularly in urban areas. There are large opportunities to reduce both

5016-571: The environment , causing premature death and illness, and it is the largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide contributing to climate change . Fourteen billion tonnes of carbon dioxide were emitted by burning coal in 2020, which is 40% of total fossil fuel emissions and over 25% of total global greenhouse gas emissions . As part of worldwide energy transition , many countries have reduced or eliminated their use of coal power . The United Nations Secretary General asked governments to stop building new coal plants by 2020. Global coal use

5104-430: The evolution of the first trees . But bacteria and fungi did not immediately evolve the ability to decompose lignin, so the wood did not fully decay but became buried under sediment, eventually turning into coal. About 300 million years ago, mushrooms and other fungi developed this ability, ending the main coal-formation period of earth's history. Although some authors pointed at some evidence of lignin degradation during

5192-428: The extraction process, the government targeted 8.9 million cu ft (250 thousand m ) per day at standard pressure for 2015. Indonesia aims to get 23% and 31% of its energy from renewable sources by 2025 and 2050 respectively. In 2020, renewables has a 11.2% share of the national energy mix, with hydro and geothermal power making up most of this. Despite its renewable energy potential, Indonesia

5280-512: The factors involved in coalification, temperature is much more important than either pressure or time of burial. Subbituminous coal can form at temperatures as low as 35 to 80 °C (95 to 176 °F) while anthracite requires a temperature of at least 180 to 245 °C (356 to 473 °F). Although coal is known from most geologic periods , 90% of all coal beds were deposited in the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Paradoxically, this

5368-498: The form of iron pyrite (FeS 2 ). Being a dense mineral, it can be removed from coal by mechanical means, e.g. by froth flotation . Some sulfate occurs in coal, especially weathered samples. It is not volatilized and can be removed by washing. Minor components include: As minerals, Hg, As, and Se are not problematic to the environment, especially since they are only trace components. They become however mobile (volatile or water-soluble) when these minerals are combusted. Most coal

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5456-475: The heat and pressure of deep burial caused the loss of water, methane and carbon dioxide and increased the proportion of carbon. The grade of coal produced depended on the maximum pressure and temperature reached, with lignite (also called "brown coal") produced under relatively mild conditions, and sub-bituminous coal , bituminous coal , or anthracite coal (also called "hard coal" or "black coal") produced in turn with increasing temperature and pressure. Of

5544-575: The highest estimated wind speeds ranging from 6.5 m/s to 8.2 m/s on an annual average basis." A very small amount of (off-grid) electricity is generated using wind power . For example, a small plant was established at Pandanmino, a small village on the south coast of Java in Bantul Regency , Yogyakarta Province, in 2011. However, it was established as an experimental plant and it is not clear whether funding for long-term maintenance will be available. In 2018, Indonesia installed its first wind farm ,

5632-431: The increasing tendency of the anthracite to break with a conchoidal fracture , similar to the way thick glass breaks. As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade or rank increases successively into: There are several international standards for coal. The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles . However

5720-538: The lead in using hydraulic fracturing to explore for shale gas in northern Sumatra. Chevron Pacific Indonesia and NuEnergy Gas are also pioneers in using fracking in existing oil fields and in new exploration. Environmental concerns and a government-imposed cap on oil prices present barriers to full development of the substantial shale deposits in the country. Sulawesi, Seram, Buru, Papua in eastern Indonesia have shales that were deposited in marine environments which may be more brittle and thus more suitable for fracking than

5808-453: The morphology and some properties of the original plant. In many coals, individual macerals can be identified visually. Some macerals include: In coalification huminite is replaced by vitreous (shiny) vitrinite . Maturation of bituminous coal is characterized by bitumenization , in which part of the coal is converted to bitumen , a hydrocarbon-rich gel. Maturation to anthracite is characterized by debitumenization (from demethanation) and

5896-405: The most important distinction is between thermal coal (also known as steam coal), which is burnt to generate electricity via steam; and metallurgical coal (also known as coking coal), which is burnt at high temperature to make steel . Hilt's law is a geological observation that (within a small area) the deeper the coal is found, the higher its rank (or grade). It applies if the thermal gradient

5984-407: The nature of Carboniferous forests, which included lycophyte trees whose determinate growth meant that carbon was not tied up in heartwood of living trees for long periods. One theory suggested that about 360 million years ago, some plants evolved the ability to produce lignin , a complex polymer that made their cellulose stems much harder and more woody. The ability to produce lignin led to

6072-455: The number of double bonds between carbon). As carbonization proceeds, aliphatic compounds convert to aromatic compounds . Similarly, aromatic rings fuse into polyaromatic compounds (linked rings of carbon atoms). The structure increasingly resembles graphene , the structural element of graphite. Chemical changes are accompanied by physical changes, such as decrease in average pore size. The macerals are coalified plant parts that retain

6160-838: The position as the world's largest coal exporter. Due to the energy transition and political split between Russia and the West over Ukraine, Russia is increasingly orienting its exports towards Asia, providing stiffer competition for Indonesia. Oil is a major sector in the Indonesian economy. During the 1980s, Indonesia was a significant oil-exporting country. Since 2000, domestic consumption has continued to rise while production has been falling, so in recent years Indonesia has begun importing increasing amounts of oil. Within Indonesia, there are considerable amounts of oil in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and West Papua Province . There are said to be around 60 basins across

6248-630: The power sector with intentions to expand to other sectors by 2025, based on readiness. This tax is part of a broader approach to decarbonization , regulated under the Law of the Harmonization of Tax Regulations. It complements a domestic emissions trading system (ETS) set to become mandatory by 2024. Non-compliant installations under the ETS will incur a carbon tax, linked to the domestic carbon market price. In Indonesia's electricity supply plan for 2021-2030 (RUPTL),

6336-456: The pre-combustion treatment, turbine technology (e.g. supercritical steam generator ) and the age of the plant. A few integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plants have been built, which burn coal more efficiently. Instead of pulverizing the coal and burning it directly as fuel in the steam-generating boiler, the coal is gasified to create syngas , which is burned in a gas turbine to produce electricity (just like natural gas

6424-536: The problems that are holding back investment in the oil sector also affect investment in gas. As of mid-2013, the main potential gas fields in Indonesia were believed to include the following: There is potential for tight oil and shale gas in northern Sumatra and eastern Kalimantan. There there is an estimated 46 trillion cu ft (1.3 trillion m ) of shale gas and 7.9 billion barrels (1.26 × 10  m ) of shale oil which could be recovered with existing technologies. Pertamina has taken

6512-427: The reacting groups are attached. Dehydration and decarboxylation take place early in coalification, while demethanation begins only after the coal has already reached bituminous rank. The effect of decarboxylation is to reduce the percentage of oxygen, while demethanation reduces the percentage of hydrogen. Dehydration does both, and (together with demethanation) reduces the saturation of the carbon backbone (increasing

6600-516: The source rocks in western Indonesia which have higher clay content. With 453 trillion cu ft (12.8 trillion m ) of coal bed methane (CBM) reserve mainly in Kalimantan and Sumatra , Indonesia has potential to redraft its energy charts as United States with its shale gas. With low enthusiasm to develop CBM project, partly in relation to environmental concern regarding emissions of greenhouse gases and contamination of water in

6688-577: The state electricity company, Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN), targets substantial growth in renewable energy, aiming for renewables to account for over half of the capacity additions. The plan includes 10 gigawatts (GW) of hydro and about 3 GW from geothermal, with smaller additions from wind (0.4 GW) and solar photovoltaic (PV) (4.7 GW). Coal is expected to make up one-third of additions (about 14 GW), with no new coal capacity planned post-2030. Natural gas will contribute about 14% to new additions. Indonesia's Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR)

6776-400: The state electricity company, has plans to phase out coal-powered plants by 2056 to achieve carbon neutrality. Before ceasing new coal power plant constructions after 2023, PLN will complete an additional 42 GW of coal-fired capacity. Furthermore, PLN has started co-firing biomass with coal in 17 power plants to reduce carbon emissions. The Indonesian coal industry is rather fragmented. Output

6864-399: The sulfur and most of the nitrogen is incorporated into the organic fraction in the form of organosulfur compounds and organonitrogen compounds . This sulfur and nitrogen are strongly bound within the hydrocarbon matrix. These elements are released as SO 2 and NO x upon combustion. They cannot be removed, economically at least, otherwise. Some coals contain inorganic sulfur, mainly in

6952-415: The world's coal-generated electricity. Efforts around the world to reduce the use of coal have led some regions to switch to natural gas and renewable energy . In 2018 coal-fired power station capacity factor averaged 51%, that is they operated for about half their available operating hours. Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue that is used in manufacturing steel and other iron-containing products. Coke

7040-402: The world's largest exporter of thermal coal since surpassing Australia in 2018, plays a significant role in the global coal market, primarily serving Asian countries such as China , India , Japan , and others. As of 2019, Indonesia exported 506 million short tons of coal, making up 32% of the world's coal exports. The country's coal production surged to a record 679 million short tons in 2019,

7128-517: Was 8.3 billion tonnes in 2022, and is set to remain at record levels in 2023. To meet the Paris Agreement target of keeping global warming below 2 °C (3.6 °F) coal use needs to halve from 2020 to 2030, and "phasing down" coal was agreed upon in the Glasgow Climate Pact . The largest consumer and importer of coal in 2020 was China , which accounts for almost half the world's annual coal production, followed by India with about

7216-574: Was based on the trading of this commodity. Coal continues to arrive on beaches around the world from both natural erosion of exposed coal seams and windswept spills from cargo ships. Many homes in such areas gather this coal as a significant, and sometimes primary, source of home heating fuel. Coal consists mainly of a black mixture of diverse organic compounds and polymers. Of course, several kinds of coals exist, with variable dark colors and variable compositions. Young coals (brown coal, lignite) are not black. The two main black coals are bituminous, which

7304-504: Was carried to London by sea. In 1257–1259, coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped to London for the smiths and lime -burners building Westminster Abbey . Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane, where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet , still exist. These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground extraction by shaft mining or adits

7392-602: Was developed in the Soviet Union , or in an MHD topping cycle . However these are not widely used due to lack of profit. In 2017 38% of the world's electricity came from coal, the same percentage as 30 years previously. In 2018 global installed capacity was 2 TW (of which 1TW is in China) which was 30% of total electricity generation capacity. The most dependent major country is South Africa, with over 80% of its electricity generated by coal; but China alone generates more than half of

7480-408: Was developed. The alternative name was "pitcoal", because it came from mines. Cooking and home heating with coal (in addition to firewood or instead of it) has been done in various times and places throughout human history, especially in times and places where ground-surface coal was available and firewood was scarce, but a widespread reliance on coal for home hearths probably never existed until such

7568-490: Was during the Late Paleozoic icehouse , a time of global glaciation . However, the drop in global sea level accompanying the glaciation exposed continental shelves that had previously been submerged, and to these were added wide river deltas produced by increased erosion due to the drop in base level . These widespread areas of wetlands provided ideal conditions for coal formation. The rapid formation of coal ended with

7656-550: Was once known as "steam coal" as it was widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives . In this specialized use, it is sometimes known as "sea coal" in the United States. Small "steam coal", also called dry small steam nuts (DSSN), was used as a fuel for domestic water heating . Coal played an important role in industry in the 19th and 20th century. The predecessor of the European Union , the European Coal and Steel Community ,

7744-430: Was used for electricity generation. Coal burnt in coal power stations to generate electricity is called thermal coal . It is usually pulverized and then burned in a furnace with a boiler . The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam , which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process varies between about 25% and 50% depending on

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