130-566: Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language and sometimes in Classical Chinese . For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was written in Hanja . It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of
260-484: A Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list . Some linguists concerned with
390-477: A core vowel. The IPA symbol ⟨ ◌͈ ⟩ ( U+0348 ◌͈ COMBINING DOUBLE VERTICAL LINE BELOW ) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/ . Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for "strong" articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice . The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice , but it is not yet known how typical this
520-573: A cycle compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language. One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (Konghu-in) by Yeo-ok during Gojoseon . Hyangga ( Korean : 향가 ; Hanja : 鄕歌 )
650-676: A folktale orally passed is the Gyeonmyo jaengju which is about a journey a cat and a dog take to retrieve a lost marble out of gratitude toward their master. The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are
780-515: A form of Korean literature, and " Goryeo gayo " ( 고려가요 ; lit. Goryeo songs) became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using hangul . The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as byeolgok ( 별곡 ) or changga . It flourished during the middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by
910-493: A later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen. However, these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects , which are still largely mutually intelligible . The Chinese language , written with Chinese characters and read with Sino-Xenic pronunciations ,
1040-450: A literary magazine, Changjo (창조 Creation ) marking the starting point of contemporary Korean literature. The magazine was followed in 1920 by GaeByeok ( 개벽 ), and Pyeho (폐허 廢墟 The Ruins , Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop); in 1921 Changmichon ( 장미촌 ); in 1922 Baekcho (백조 White Tide , Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-gon); and in 1923 Geumsong (금성 Gold Star , of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary magazines which appeared during
1170-562: A possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre- Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as Amuric ) were once distributed on the Korean Peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding
1300-529: A refrain either in the middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng. There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche ( 단련체 )and yeonjanche ( 연잔체 ). The former
1430-411: A satisfactory level for Sejong. In the 26th year of his reign, he had the cannon foundry Hwapojujoso ( 화포주조소 ; 火砲鑄造所 ) built to produce a new standard cannon with outstanding performance, and in the following year, he undertook a complete overhaul of the cannon. The Chongtongdeungnok ( 총통등록 ; 銃筒謄錄 ) compiled and published in the 30th year his reign, was an illustrated book that described
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#17328762150951560-567: A set of biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla , in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty , yet the poems in the Samguk yusa appear to be based on no-longer-extant records actually from the Silla period. Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are
1690-526: A subject's duty is to serve his superior with honesty and not to tolerate deceit. However, people all around the world worship the Buddha, serve spirits at their houses, and yet reproach others for worshiping the very ghosts and Buddha they themselves revere; I find this highly reprehensible. In 1427, Sejong issued a decree against the Huihui ( Korean Muslim ) community that had enjoyed special status and stipends since
1820-426: Is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life. Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul
1950-420: Is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman. Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives include myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal sources of these narratives are
2080-466: Is also an account of Sejong's having a disease that roughly translates to palsy ( 풍증 ; 風症 ) and essential tremor ( 수전증 ; 手顫症 ), but terminology of the 15th century Korean traditional medicine does not translate well. Sejong died on 8 April 1450, on the Gregorian calendar, at the residence of Grand Prince Young-eung at the age of 52. He was buried at Yeongneung ( 영릉 ; 英陵 ), in
2210-603: Is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War . Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic , Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense . Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean , which in turn descends from Old Korean , which descends from
2340-656: Is an agglutinative language . The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech . Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the verb is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. Question 가게에 gage-e store- LOC 가셨어요? ga-syeo-sseo-yo go- HON . PAST - CONJ - POL 가게에 가셨어요? gage-e ga-syeo-sseo-yo store-LOC go-HON.PAST-CONJ-POL 'Did [you] go to
2470-511: Is closer to a near-open central vowel ( [ɐ] ), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun ( -은/-는 ) and -i/-ga ( -이/-가 ). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul ( -을/-를 ), -euro/-ro ( -으로/-로 ), -eseo/-seo ( -에서/-서 ), -ideunji/-deunji ( -이든지/-든지 ) and -iya/-ya ( -이야/-야 ). Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Korean
2600-452: Is common. Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people. Gasa is a form of verse , although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa
2730-484: Is featured on the 10,000 won banknote of the South Korean won , along with various scientific tools invented under his reign. Sejong was first portrayed in the 1000- hwan bill as part of the 15 August 1960 currency reform , replacing the portrait of former president Syngman Rhee . Sejong was also featured on the 500- hwan bill the following year. Both bills were decommissioned in 1962. Sejong's portrait returned with
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#17328762150952860-533: Is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from
2990-399: Is mainly reserved for specific circumstances such as newspapers, scholarly papers and disambiguation. Today Hanja is largely unused in everyday life but is still important for historical and linguistic studies. The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo , which is thought to be
3120-399: Is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language ). This occurs with
3250-771: Is remembered as the inventor of Hangul , the native alphabet of the Korean language . Initially titled Grand Prince Chungnyeong ( 충녕대군 ; 忠寧大君 ), he was the third son of King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong . In 1418, Sejong replaced his eldest brother, Yi Je , as crown prince ; a few months later, Taejong voluntarily abdicated the throne in Sejong's favor. In the early years of Sejong's reign, King Emeritus Taejong retained vast powers, most notably absolute executive and military power, and continued to govern until his death in 1422. Sejong reinforced Korean Confucian and Neo-Confucian policies, and enacted major legal amendments ( 공법 ; 貢法 ). He personally created and promulgated
3380-535: Is that the narratives written by yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in Korea. The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history, biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside of the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided
3510-534: Is the native language for about 81 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the national language of both North Korea and South Korea . Beyond Korea, the language is recognized as a minority language in parts of China , namely Jilin , and specifically Yanbian Prefecture , and Changbai County . It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin , the Russian island just north of Japan, and by
3640-716: Is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages , in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group . Also, the doublet wo meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on
3770-511: The Koryo-saram in parts of Central Asia . The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family . Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible . The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria . The hierarchy of the society from which
3900-523: The yangban aristocracy, who looked down upon it too easy to learn. However, it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. Since few people could understand official documents written in classical Chinese, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By
4030-585: The Jongmyo Jerye (memorials honoring the kings of Joseon). In 1418, during Sejong's reign, scholars developed the Pyeongyeong ( 편경 ; 編磬 ), a lithophone modeled on the Chinese bianqing . The Pyeongyeong is a percussion instrument consisting of two rows of 8 pumice slabs hung on a decorative wooden frame with a 16-tone range and struck with an ox horn mallet. It was manufactured using pumice mined from
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4160-520: The Veritable Records of King Sejong and Jeong In-ji 's preface to the Hunminjeongeum Haerye emphasize that Sejong invented it himself. Before the creation of the new alphabet, the people of Joseon primarily used Classical Chinese to write, alongside a few writing systems like idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil —which used Chinese characters to approximate sounds of
4290-483: The ' Jongmyo court music ' , which was used for royal ancestral rituals and is now inscribed as an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Hertiage . King Sejong profoundly affected Korea's history with the creation and introduction of hangul , the native phonetic writing system for the Korean language . Although it is widely assumed that he ordered the Hall of Worthies to invent the script, contemporaneous records such as
4420-470: The Cheongsong Sim clan [ ko ] , who would later become Queen Soheon . In 1412, Yi To was granted the title Grand Prince Chungnyeong ( 충녕대군 ; 忠寧大君 ). In 1414, he had his first son, who would later become Munjong . As Taejong's eldest son, Grand Prince Yangnyeong was to inherit the throne. However, Taejong, as well as court officials, increasingly deemed Yangnyeong unsuitable for
4550-515: The Goryeo period, monks wielded strong political and economic influence. However, in Joseon, Buddhism was considered a false philosophy and the monks were viewed as corrupted by power and money. Likewise, Sejong continued Joseon's policies of "worshiping Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism " ( Korean : 승유억불 ; Hanja : 崇儒抑佛 ). He banned monks from entering Hanseong and reduced
4680-459: The Gyeonggi Province and was primarily used for ceremonies. Sejong's contribution to the arts continued long after his death; he had always wanted to use Korean music rather than Chinese music for ancestral rituals, but conservative court officials stopped his efforts. However, when Sejong's son, King Sejo , rose to the throne, he modified the ritual music composed by his father and created
4810-584: The King Sejong Institute , the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts , Sejong Science High School , and Sejong University also bear his name. A 9.5-meter-high (31 ft) bronze statue of King Sejong , unveiled in 2009 in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet, now sits on a concrete pedestal on the boulevard of Gwanghwamun Square and directly in front of
4940-536: The Korean alphabet , encouraged advancements in science and technology, and introduced measures to stimulate economic growth. He launched military campaigns to the north and implemented a relocation policy ( 사민정책 ; 徙民政策 ), establishing settlements in the newly conquered areas. He also ordered the Occupation of Tsushima island. From 1439, he became increasingly ill and his eldest son, Crown Prince Yi Hyang , acted as regent . Sejong died on March 1450. Sejong
5070-993: The Leninist Banner (now Koryo Ilbo ) , including poet Cho Ki-chon , who eventually moved to North Korea. Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely ignored by non-Korean speakers. The diversity of the books translated and quality of translations have both improved. Flowers of Fire (1974) was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish, French and Polish. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market literature, particularly in Japan and China. Korean language Korean ( South Korean : 한국어 , Hanguk-eo ; North Korean : 조선어 , Chosŏnŏ )
5200-453: The Meiji period . Their representatives are Choi Nam-seon and Lee Kwang-su . Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer possible. Ernest Bethell 's Taehan Maeil Shinbo (大韓每日申報) provided for Korean writers a brief opportunity of artistic expression free from censorship, from July 1904 till May 1909, but after control of the paper
5330-457: The Mongol empire . Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon dynasty 's fall. This first period of modern Korean literature is often called the "enlightenment". This period was to a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo , gasa , or even serial novels and led to
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5460-570: The Proto-Koreanic language , which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland somewhere in Manchuria . Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and
5590-601: The Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul. The pedestal contains one of the several entrances to the 3,200 m underground museum exhibit entitled "The Story of King Sejong". In 2007, the South Korean Chief of Naval Operations officially announced the naming of its Sejong the Great -class destroyers , further explaining that Sejong's name was chosen as he was the most beloved figure among South Koreans. A portrait of Sejong
5720-581: The Songhua River . Sejong promoted the sciences. In 1420, Sejong created an institute within Gyeongbokgung known as the Hall of Worthies . The institute was responsible for conducting scientific research with the purpose of advancing the country's technology. The Hall of Worthies was designed to host Joseon's best and brightest thinkers, with the government offering grants and scholarships to encourage young scholars to attend. In 1428, Sejong ordered
5850-557: The Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while " -eo " and " -mal " mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as guk-eo , literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters ( 國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China ,
5980-577: The Treaty of 1910 , hangul was outlawed again until the liberation of Korea in 1945. Sejong suffered from eye diseases and deteriorating vision and likely had health issues linked to excessive meat consumption all throughout his life. Sejong's love for meat is clear from a comment by King Emeritus Taejong . When Sejong stopped eating fish and meat to mourn after the death of Jeongjong —Sejong's uncle and Taejong 's older brother— Taejong remarked that Sejong had always found it hard to eat without meat since he
6110-516: The Treaty of Gyehae , the daimyo of Tsushima was obliged to pay tribute to the Joseon monarch, and in turn the Sō clan was allowed to serve as a diplomatic intermediary between Korea and Japan, as well as receive exclusive trade rights. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo to the north to destroy the Jurchens . The military campaign captured several fortresses, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, to
6240-451: The Yuan dynasty 's rule over Goryeo . The Huihui were forced to abandon their headgear, close down their "ceremonial hall" (a mosque in the city of Gaegyeong, in present-day Kaesong ), and worship like everyone else. No further records of Muslims exist during the Joseon era. In the early years of the Joseon dynasty, the economy operated on a barter system, with cloth, grain, and cotton being
6370-579: The casting methods , gunpowder usage, and specifications of the guns. The publication of this book is considered a remarkable achievement that marked a new era in the manufacture of artillery during the Joseon Dynasty. In June 1419, under the advice and guidance of his father, Sejong ordered the third and last occupation of Tsushima , known as Daemado Jeongbeol ( 대마도 정벌 ) in Korean and Ōei Invasion in Japanese. The ultimate goal of this military expedition
6500-478: The "benefit of the feudalist ruling class ". Contrastingly, in a column from its 15 December 2001 issue, North Korean news outlet Tongil Sinbo reported that Sejong the Great greatly contributed to Korean science during his reign of 30 years. Hangul Day is also celebrated in North Korea, albeit on a different date. Sejong and his primary consort Soheon had ten children together: the most for any queen consort of
6630-819: The 17th century, the yangban had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. In the context of growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reform of 1894 abolished the Confucian examinations and decreed that government documents would be issued in Hangul instead of literary Chinese. Some newspapers were published entirely in Hangul, but other publications used Korean mixed script , with Hanja for Sino-Korean vocabulary and Hangul for other elements. North Korea abolished Hanja in writing in 1949, but continues to teach them in schools. Their usage in South Korea
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#17328762150956760-460: The 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with
6890-408: The 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters ( jamo ) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language . Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports . As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language )
7020-441: The Great is considered one of the most influential monarchs in Korean history, with the creation of Hangul considered his greatest legacy. Sejong is widely renowned in modern-day South Korea. In a 2024 survey by Gallup Korea , Sejong was nominated as the second most respected figure by South Koreans, only to be surpassed by Yi Sun-sin . The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture evaluates the reign of Sejong "the most shining period of
7150-407: The Japanese military police. After 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South . The Korean War led to the development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war and tragedy . North Korea (DPRK) South Korea (ROK) Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of
7280-439: The Korean language—that had been in use since hundreds of years before hangul. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of Chinese characters required, lower-class people of Joseon lacked the privilege of education and were illiterate. To promote literacy, King Sejong created hangul (which initially had 28 letters, four of which are no longer in use). Hangul
7410-444: The Korean peninsula. There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); byeolgok ("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and gasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445–47; Songs of Flying Dragons),
7540-468: The South Korean government, are still being recorded. Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe. An example of
7670-615: The Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic sources for such material. Later compilations made during the Yi dynasty served as a major source of materials for later Yi dynasty fiction. Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is Korean fiction written in Chinese and that written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one chapter, "medium" works of about 10 chapters, and long works of more than 10 chapters. Third, there are works of yangban writers and those of common writers. In respect to
7800-508: The ability to read and write would allow them to find and abuse loopholes within the law. Others felt that hangul would threaten their families' positions in court by creating a larger pool of civil servants. The Joseon elite continued to use the Chinese hanja long after Sejong's death. Hangul was often treated with contempt by those in power and received criticism in the form of nicknames, including eonmun ("vulgar script"), amkeul ("women's script"), and ahaekkeul ("children's script"). It
7930-455: The beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/ . A written syllable-final ' ㄹ ', when followed by a vowel or a glide ( i.e. , when the next character starts with ' ㅇ '), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ] . Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j] , and otherwise became /n/ . However,
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#17328762150958060-501: The compiler of the Samguk yusa was a Zen master, his collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist elements. It also includes the 14 hyangga mentioned above. The compilations made in the Koryo period preserved the stories of prehistoric times, of
8190-481: The efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati in the form of 125 cantos . This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul , the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon dynasty which are of significant importance to understanding
8320-459: The emergence of professional writers. Sinchesi ( 신체시 ; lit. new poetry) was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called Jayusi ( 자유시 ). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor found in classical Korean poetry, influenced by the French vers libre . Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character
8450-402: The events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of virtuous kings proceeding the fall of the Goryeo dynasty , and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism . Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from
8580-459: The exchange rate dropped below the coin's intrinsic value. In 1445, Sejong consolidated the various sujoji records, previously managed by various government offices, and placed them under the administration of the Ministry of Taxation ( Hojo ) to improve transparency in Joseon's fiscal policies. King Sejong was an effective military planner and created various military regulations to strengthen
8710-399: The first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as Koryo-saram or Koryo-in (literally, " Koryo/Goryeo persons"), and call the language Koryo-mal' . Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in
8840-501: The first complete edition of the Bible in Korean published in 1910. However, it was mostly Western aesthetic schools that influenced Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok , were increasingly perceived as old-fashioned and out of date. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul , which helped increase working class literacy rates. Hangul reached its peak of popularity in
8970-471: The highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national treasures" by
9100-471: The history of our [the Korean] people." Sejong's creation of the Korean alphabet is celebrated every 9 October as Hangul Day , a national holiday. Multiple places in South Korea, including Sejong Street ( Sejongno ; 세종로, 世宗路), Sejong–Pocheon Expressway , and Sejong Special Autonomous City , South Korea's de facto administrative capital, are named after him. Various institutes such as King Sejong Station ,
9230-479: The inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l] . All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release , [p̚, t̚, k̚] . Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains
9360-422: The introduction of Christianity in Korea in 1602. Hangul was brought into the mainstream culture in the 16th century, due to a renaissance in literature and poetry. It continued to gain popularity well into the 17th century, and gained wider use after a period of nationalism in the 19th century. In 1849, it was adopted as Korea's national writing system, and saw its first use in official government documents. After
9490-533: The introduction of the 10,000- won bill, when his portrait and Geunjeongjeon replaced Seokguram and Bulguksa as features of the bill, in 1973. In North Korea, Sejong is not as widely commemorated compared to the South. Vol. 16 of the Great Korean Encyclopedia asserts that " feudalist pressure and extortion" was strengthened during Sejong's reign, and that all of Sejong's policies were directed for
9620-408: The issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship , but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese . A good example might be Middle Korean sàm and Japanese asá , meaning " hemp ". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it
9750-692: The king distributed it to poor peasants who needed it. Otherwise the state maintained a permanent grain dole, that existed since the days of Unified Silla. Sejong composed the famous Yongbieocheonga ("Songs of Flying Dragons"; 1445), Seokbo Sangjeol ("Episodes from the Life of Buddha"; July 1447), Worin Cheongang Jigok ("Songs of the Moon Shining on a Thousand Rivers"; July 1447), and Dongguk Jeongun ("Dictionary of Proper Sino-Korean Pronunciation"; September 1447). One of Sejong's closest friends and mentors
9880-570: The language is most often called Joseon-mal , or more formally, Joseon-o . This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire , which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan . In mainland China , following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or
10010-466: The language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script ( 한글 ; Hangeul in South Korea, 조선글 ; Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until
10140-495: The last classification, however, there is also a group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives mentioned above, the author adding incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign definite dates or authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing correct moral conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic
10270-451: The late 1800s. In South Korea the Korean language is referred to by many names including hanguk-eo ("Korean language"), hanguk-mal ("Korean speech") and uri-mal ("our language"); " hanguk " is taken from the name of the Korean Empire ( 대한제국 ; 大韓帝國 ; Daehan Jeguk ). The " han " ( 韓 ) in Hanguk and Daehan Jeguk is derived from Samhan , in reference to
10400-557: The legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from one performer to another. Yongbi eocheonga ( 용비어천가 ; 龍飛御天歌 ; lit. Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven). It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the Golden Age of Korea. The Songs were composed through
10530-468: The mention of a rain gauge, Yeongjo ordered a reproduction. Since there is a mark of the Qing dynasty ruler Qianlong (r. 1735–96), dated 1770, this Korean-designed rain gauge is sometimes misunderstood as having been imported from China. In 1434, Jang Yeong-sil, tasked by King Sejong, invented the gabinja ( 갑인자 ; 甲寅字 ), a new type of printing press . This printing press was said to be twice as fast as
10660-524: The mid-Joseon period, parable -like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng was commonplace. Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori ("story singing") texts. In spite of
10790-473: The most common forms of currency. In 1423, under King Sejong's administration, the government attempted to introduce a national currency modeled after the Tang dynasty 's kaiyuan tongbao ( 開元通寶 ). The resulting Joseon tongbo ( 조선통보 ; 朝鮮通寶 ) was a bronze coin, backed by a silver standard, with 150 coins being equal to 600 grams of silver. However, production ceased in 1425 due to high manufacturing costs, as
10920-417: The most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks , and Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family members. The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely disappeared as
11050-534: The newly adopted intensive and continuous cultivation methods. One of Sejong's close associates was inventor Jang Yeong-sil . Jang, who was originally a government-owned nobi from Dongnae , was appointed as a court technician by Sejong in 1423. Upon giving Jang a government position and funding for his inventions, officials protested, believing a person from the lower classes should not rise to power among nobles. Sejong instead believed he merited support because of his ability. In 1442, Jang Yeong-sil made one of
11180-579: The occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays—through repetition and variety—achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature) Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in
11310-494: The officials objected and insisted that Taejong select a wise person as heir apparent. King Taejong asked the officials to propose an alternative. According to the Veritable Records , they gave an indirect response: "The father knows his sons best, as the king knows his subjects best." Taejong judged his second son, Grand Prince Hyoryeong , to have a disposition too soft for the role. He then proposed Chungnyeong, whom he felt
11440-429: The plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters—Pak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji—dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry) The final type of folk literature
11570-497: The political stability enjoyed in the past decades disintegrated when Danjong became the sixth king of Joseon at the age of twelve. Eventually, Sejong's second son, Grand Prince Suyang (later known as King Sejo ), usurped the throne in 1455. When six court officials were implicated in a plot to restore his nephew, Sejo abolished the Hall of Worthies and executed Danjong along with several ministers who served during Sejong's reign. Sejong
11700-411: The population was illiterate. In the 15th century King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system , known today as Hangul , to promote literacy among the common people. Introduced in the document Hunminjeongeum , it was called eonmun ('colloquial script') and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. The Korean alphabet was denounced by
11830-420: The previous model and was composed of copper-zinc and lead-tin alloys. Sejong also wanted to reform the Korean calendar system, which was at the time based upon the longitude of the Chinese capital. He had his astronomers create a calendar with the Joseon capital of Hanseong as the primary meridian. This new system allowed Joseon astronomers to accurately predict the timing of solar and lunar eclipses . In
11960-572: The printing of one thousand copies of a "farmer's handbook". The following year, he published the Nongsa Jikseol ( 농사직설 ; 農事直說 ; lit. 'Straight Talk on Farming'), a compilation of various farming methods accommodative to Korea's climate and soil conditions. The book dealt with planting, harvesting, and soil treatment, and contained information about the different farming techniques that scientists gathered from different regions of Korea. These techniques were essential for maintaining
12090-482: The project—despite fierce opposition from his courtiers—and condemned the hypocrisy of those who privately worship the Buddha yet publicly rebuke others for doing so. 上謂承政院曰 孟子言 '墨子以薄爲道, 而葬其親厚'。大抵臣子之道, 宜以直事上, 不可容其詐。 然世人在家, 奉佛事神, 靡所不至, 及對人, 反以神佛爲非, 予甚惡之。 The King spoke to the Seungjeongwon , Mencius once said, ' Mozi regards austerity as a virtue and yet made a lavish burial for his parents.' Generally speaking,
12220-561: The promotion of new education, enlightenment, and the destruction of tradition and superstition, and the act of salvation of enlightenment. With the Samil Movement in 1919 came a new form of Korean literature. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers. In 1919 Kim Tong-in and Kim Hyok founded
12350-401: The proposed reform. Joseon's economy depended on the agricultural output of the farmers, so Sejong allowed them to pay more or less tax according to the fluctuations of economic prosperity and hard times. Because of this, farmers could worry less about tax quotas and instead work at maintaining and selling their crops. It is said that once, when the palace had a significant surplus of food,
12480-411: The readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of farmers . At
12610-742: The reality of colonial rule in Korea. Many novels of the 1920s centered on themes of the suffering of intellectuals. The lives of farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques. Poets included: Han Yong-un , Buddhist reformer and poet: Nimui chimmuk (The Silence of My Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong , Chu Yo-han , Hwang Sok-woo ( 황석우 ), Kim Myeong-sun , Kim Sowol , Kim Yeong-nang , Pak Tu-jin , Yi Sang , Yi Sang-hwa ( 이상화 ; 李相和 ), Yu Chi-hwan , Yun Dong-ju , and Yi Yuk-sa (이육사, 李陸史; 1904–1944) tortured to death by
12740-646: The realm of traditional Korean medicine , two important treatises were written during his reign. These were the Hyangyak Jipseongbang ( 향약집성방 ; 鄕藥集成方 ) and the Euibang Yuchwi ( 의방유취 ; 醫方類聚 ), which historian Kim Yong-sik says represents "the Koreans' efforts to develop their own system of medical knowledge, distinct from that of China". In 1426, Sejong enacted a law that granted government serfs ( 노비 ; 奴婢 ; nobi ) women 100 days of maternity leave after childbirth, which, in 1430,
12870-404: The role due to his erratic and irresponsible behavior. In a series of escalating events involving Yangnyeong's affair with Eori, a concubine of Kwak Sŏn, Yangnyeong was ultimately deposed as crown prince. In mid-1418, court officials petitioned Taejong to consider a new candidate for the throne. Following primogeniture, Taejong initially considered Yangnyeong's eldest son for the role. However,
13000-539: The safety of his kingdom. During his reign great technological advancements were made in the manufacture of gunpowder and firearms . Hand cannons, known as Wangu ( 완구 ; 碗口 ), first built in 1407 and 1418, were improved upon, and the Sohwapo ( 소화포 ; 小火砲 ), Cheonjetanhwan ( 철제탄환 ), Hwapojeon ( 화포전 ; 火砲箭 ) and the Hwacho ( 화초 ; 火초 ) were invented during his reign. None of these had yet reached
13130-498: The same mound as his wife, Queen Soheon , who died four years earlier. The tomb is located in Yeoju , South Korea. His successor was his first son, Yi Hyang (posthumously King Munjong ). Sejong was concerned that sickly Munjong would die early and leave his vulnerable young son to reign, so he asked scholars from the Hall of Worthies to look after his young grandson, Danjong . As predicted, Munjong died two years after his ascension, and
13260-539: The same time, literature concerned with the national division ( bundan soseol ) became more popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress. In the Soviet Union, ethnic Korean Koryo-saram and left-leaning Koreans published and read literature through
13390-445: The sandae kuk genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as
13520-405: The second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major renaissance. Sinsoseol , for instance, are novels written in hangul. During the period of Japanese imperial rule (1910–1945), Japanese literature had deep connections with the establishment of modern literature in Korea due to some of the founders of modern literature in Korea having come from Korean students who had studied in Japan during
13650-475: The seven schools of Buddhism down to two, Seon and Gyo , drastically decreasing the power and wealth of the religious leaders. One of the key factors in this suppression was Sejong's reform of the land system. This policy resulted in temple lands being seized and redistributed for development and monks losing large amounts of economic influence. Furthermore, he performed government ceremonies according to Confucianism and encouraged people to behave according to
13780-660: The short form Cháoyǔ has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian , whereas Hánguóyǔ or the short form Hányǔ is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language . Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting
13910-413: The store?' Response 예/네. ye/ne AFF Sejong the Great of Joseon Sejong ( Korean : 세종 ; Hanja : 世宗 ; 15 May 1397 – 30 March 1450), personal name Yi To ( 이도 ; 李祹 ), commonly known as Sejong the Great ( 세종대왕 ; 世宗大王 ), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea . He is regarded as one of the greatest rulers in Korean history, and
14040-451: The surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for Korean words. Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. It originally indicated songs that were sung in the Silla period. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk yusa contains 14 poems and the " Gyunyeojeon ",
14170-409: The teachings of Confucius . At the same time, Sejong sought to alleviate religious tensions between Confucianism and Buddhism. The Seokbosangjeol ( 석보상절 ; 釋譜詳節 ), a 24-volume Korean-language biography of Buddha translated from Chinese Buddhist texts, was commissioned and published in Sejong's reign by Grand Prince Suyang , in mourning for Queen Soheon, a devout Buddhist. Sejong advocated
14300-441: The tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot ( 버섯 ) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u] , a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i] , a velar [x] before [ɯ] , a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at
14430-435: The thrall of the queen's clan, Taejong had Sejong's father-in-law, Shim On , executed on charges of treason. Other members of the queen's family were exiled or made commoners, which left Queen Soheon politically isolated and unable to protest. Despite inheriting significantly strengthened royal authority, Sejong did not suppress the press and promoted meritocracy through gwageo , the national civil service exam. During
14560-559: The traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry. In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage
14690-737: The two great historical records compiled in Classical Chinese during the Koryo era: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most important myths are those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives of the ancient kings. The legends touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales include stories about animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and evil punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because
14820-464: The underlying, partly historical morphology . Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" ( 두음법칙 ) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, ^NOTE ㅏ
14950-573: The world's first standardized rain gauges named cheugugi ( 측우기 ; 測雨器 ). This model has not survived, with the oldest existing Korean rain gauge being made in 1770, during the reign of King Yeongjo . According to the Daily Records of the Royal Secretariat ( 승정원일기 ; 承政院日記 ; Seungjeongwon Ilgi ), Yeongjo wanted to revive the glorious times of Sejong the Great, and started reading chronicles from that era. When he came across
15080-510: The yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose. The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa (金鰲新話 금오신화 New stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-sŭp . It was written in Chinese. From the 17th century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available through book rental schemes. Pansori -based fiction
15210-463: Was a child. Sejong also started having musculoskeletal pain at the age of 22. One day he was supposed to organize a farewell party for the emissaries to the Ming dynasty but was in too much pain to do so. Sejong said: "My waist and back are stiff and immobile, so it is hard to bend or straighten." There is speculation that he had diabetes, but there is inadequate evidence for a modern medical diagnosis. There
15340-405: Was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori ( Chunhyangga , Simcheongga , Heungbuga , Jeokbyeokga and Sugungga ). Although based on older traditional songs, it was composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer, and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time. In
15470-463: Was born Yi To ( 이도 ; 李祹 ) on 15 May 1397, in Junsubang, Hanseong ( Seoul ), Joseon to Yi Pang-wŏn and a lady of the influential Yeoheung Min clan (later Queen Wongyeong ). While records of Yi's childhood are scarce, it is known that Yi was born outside Gyeongbokgung when his father, Yi Pang-wŏn , was not yet heir to the throne. In 1408, Yi's father arranged his marriage to Lady Sim of
15600-501: Was commonly used for areas like casual writing, prose and bookkeeping, especially by the urban middle class like administrators and bureaucrats. It notably gained popularity among women and fiction writers, with former usually often not having been able to get access to hanja education. In 1504, the study and publication of hangul was banned by Yeonsangun . Its spread and preservation can be largely attributed to three main factors: books published for women, its use by Buddhist monks, and
15730-405: Was completed in 1443 and published in 1446 along with a 33-page manual titled Hunminjeongeum , explaining what the letters are as well as the philosophical theories and motives behind them. King Sejong faced backlash from the noble class as many disapproved of the idea of a common writing system, with some openly opposing its creation. Many within the nobility believed that giving the peasants
15860-420: Was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs. Sijo (literally current tune ) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty
15990-487: Was first introduced to Korea in the 1st century BC, and remained the medium of formal writing and government until the late 19th century. Korean scholars adapted Chinese characters (known in Korean as Hanja ) to write their own language, creating scripts known as idu , hyangchal , gugyeol , and gakpil. These systems were cumbersome, due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages, and accessible only to those educated in classical Chinese. Most of
16120-602: Was intelligent and sharp in matters of politics. The officials welcomed the decision and confirmed that Chungnyeong had been their preferred choice. On 8 July 1418, Chungnyeong was made crown prince of Joseon. On 9 September 1418, Chungnyeong ascended the throne as King Sejong, following Taejong's abdication. However, Taejong retained military power and continued to make major political decisions as king emeritus ( 상왕 ; 上王 ) until his death. Sejong did not challenge Taejong's authority and deferred to his father during this period. Perpetually wary of royal authority falling into
16250-443: Was lengthened by one month before childbirth. In 1434, he also granted the husbands 30 days of paternity leave. In order to provide equality and fairness in taxation for the common people, Sejong issued a royal decree to administer a nationwide public opinion poll regarding a new tax system called Gongbeop in 1430. Over the course of five months, the poll surveyed 172,806 people, of which approximately 57% responded with approval for
16380-459: Was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness. Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts based on trade and economic development. The first printed work of fiction in Korean was John Bunyan 's Pilgrim's Progress ( 천로역정 ; Cheonno-yeokjeong ), translated by James Scarth Gale (1893). Christian religion found its way into Korea, culminating in
16510-575: Was seized by the Government-General uncensored Korean publishing became impossible. Lee In-jik's New Novel: Bloody Tears ( 혈의 누 ; Hyeorui-nu ), which was published in 1906 in Mansebo , later became a universal name for "New Novel". "New novel" refers to the works created for about 10 years before 1917. "New Novel" generally involved realistic problems as sanctions. Accordingly, it dealt with topics related to self-reliance, freedom of association,
16640-559: Was the 15th century musician Bak Yeon . Together they composed over two hundred musical arrangements. Sejong's independent musical compositions include the Chongdaeop ('Great Achievements'), Potaepyeong ('Preservation of Peace'), Pongnaeui ('Phoenix'), and Yominrak ('A Joy to Share with the People'). Yominrak continues to be a standard piece played by modern traditional Korean orchestras, while Chongdaeop and Potaepyeong are played during
16770-553: Was to remove the nuisance of Japanese pirates who had been operating from to the island. During the invasion, 245 Japanese were executed or killed and another 110 were captured, while 180 Korean soldiers died. Around 150 kidnapped victims (146 Chinese and 8 Koreans) were also freed. A truce was made in July 1419 and the Joseon army returned to the Korean Peninsula, but no official documents were signed until 1443. In this agreement, known as
16900-462: Was written in Korean using modified hanja in a system that is called idu ( 이두 ; 吏讀 ; lit. clerk's writings). Specifically, the variety of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called " hyangchal ". Idu was a system using hanja characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On
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