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118-545: Amorphophallus konjac –also known as konnyaku , and konjac – is a vegetable species native to Yunnan in southwest China which has an edible corm . It is also known as devil's tongue , voodoo lily , snake palm , or elephant yam . It is a relative of the titan arum ( A. titanum ), one of the largest flowering plants in the world and a congener of konjac. It is cultivated in warm subtropical to tropical areas of East and Southeast Asia, from China and Japan south to Indonesia and Vietnam (USDA hardiness zone 6–11). It

236-526: A Loloish or Bai name. The Yuanmou Man , a Homo erectus fossil unearthed by railway engineers in the 1960s, has been determined to be the oldest-known hominid fossil in China. By the Neolithic period, there were human settlements in the area of Lake Dian . These people used stone tools and constructed simple wooden structures. Around the 3rd century BC, the central area of Yunnan around present day Kunming

354-435: A magnetic field , possibly to the point of behaving like a solid. The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow are distinct from the elastic forces that occur in a solid in response to shear, compression, or extension stresses. While in the latter the stress is proportional to the amount of shear deformation, in a fluid it is proportional to the rate of deformation over time. For this reason, James Clerk Maxwell used

472-454: A pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow. This is because a force is required to overcome the friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion. For a tube with a constant rate of flow, the strength of the compensating force is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. In general, viscosity depends on a fluid's state, such as its temperature, pressure, and rate of deformation. However,

590-466: A barrier to monsoon winds, trapping moisture in the province. This gives the alpine flora in particular what one source has called a "lushness found nowhere else". This topographic range combined with a tropical moisture sustains extremely high biodiversity and high degrees of endemism , probably the richest botanically in the world's temperate regions. Perhaps 17,000 species of higher plants, of which an estimated 2,500 are endemic, can be found in

708-540: A choking risk, but are nonetheless affected by the government bans. Some products that remain in East Asian markets have an increased size, unusual shape, and more delicate consistency than the round, plug-like gels that were associated with the choking incidents. The snacks usually have warning labels advising parents to make sure their children chew the jelly thoroughly before swallowing. Japan's largest manufacturer of konjac snacks, MannanLife , temporarily stopped producing

826-474: A coma and died 27 months later at age 11. The Enriles won a $ 16.7 million judgment against the Taiwanese manufacturer of the candy. Konjac corm powder has a noticeably fishy smell and is used as an ingredient in vegan alternative seafood products. It can be incorporated into plant-based versions of seafood. For Chinese cooking, thin strands of konjac gel can be used as substitute for shark fins when preparing

944-436: A constant viscosity ( non-Newtonian fluids ) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate. One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer. In coating industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in which the efflux time is measured. There are several sorts of cup—such as

1062-504: A deep hatred of Muslims after an incident in which he was stripped naked and nearly lynched by a mob of Muslims. He ordered several Muslim rebels to be slowly sliced to death . Tariq Ali wrote about the real incident in one of his novels and claimed the Muslims who had nearly lynched Shuxing'a were not Hui but belonged to another ethnicity. Nevertheless, the Manchu official blamed all Muslims for

1180-502: A fluid, just as thermal conductivity characterizes heat transport, and (mass) diffusivity characterizes mass transport. This perspective is implicit in Newton's law of viscosity, τ = μ ( ∂ u / ∂ y ) {\displaystyle \tau =\mu (\partial u/\partial y)} , because the shear stress τ {\displaystyle \tau } has units equivalent to

1298-421: A force multiplied by a time divided by an area. Thus its SI units are newton-seconds per square meter, or pascal-seconds. Viscosity quantifies the internal frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a viscous fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more quickly near the tube's center line than near its walls. Experiments show that some stress (such as

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1416-587: A giant forest-dwelling bovine , the Indochinese tiger and the Asian elephant . Other extremely rare species are the Yunnan box turtle and the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey . It is feared that the Yunnan lar gibbon , another moribund species, has already gone extinct. Yunnan province has 11 national and regional nature reserves. In total, the covered protected area in China is about 510,000 hectares. The freshwater fish fauna

1534-415: A momentum flux , i.e., momentum per unit time per unit area. Thus, τ {\displaystyle \tau } can be interpreted as specifying the flow of momentum in the y {\displaystyle y} direction from one fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law of viscosity, this momentum flow occurs across a velocity gradient, and the magnitude of the corresponding momentum flux

1652-583: A new kingdom called Dachanghe . Nanzhao, a once-powerful empire, disappeared. In 928, Yang Ganzhen (楊干貞) usurped the Dachanghe king and established Zhao Shanzheng, a qingpingguan as emperor of Datianxing (大天興). In 929, Yang Qianzhen abolished Zhao Shanzheng and established himself as Emperor of Dayining (大義寧). In 937, Duan Siping overthrew the Dayining Kingdom and established the Dali Kingdom . The kingdom

1770-498: A plant-based version of shark fin soup . Konjac can also be used for facial massage accessories, which are popular in Korea and gaining popularity in the West. Most commonly this is through the use of a konjac sponge, which is unique in that it can be used on sensitive skin that may become easily irritated with more common exfoliating tools (such as loofahs or washcloths). It can be used in

1888-425: A slightly oceanic taste and smell (from the seaweed powder added to it, though some forms omit the seaweed). In Japan, it is valued more for its texture than flavor. Ito konnyaku ( 糸蒟蒻 ) is a Japanese food consisting of konjac cut into noodle-like strips. It is usually sold in plastic bags with accompanying water, which is drained before cooking. The name literally means 'thread-konjac'. Japanese konnyaku

2006-416: A specific fluid state. To standardize comparisons among experiments and theoretical models, viscosity data is sometimes extrapolated to ideal limiting cases, such as the zero shear limit, or (for gases) the zero density limit. Transport theory provides an alternative interpretation of viscosity in terms of momentum transport: viscosity is the material property which characterizes momentum transport within

2124-462: A supposed medicinal food. Japanese documents from around the 18th century mentions its intestinal cleansing property. Nakajima Toemon developed a method to produce konjac flour in 1776, which are more durable for transportation and storage, contributing to their wider consumption. Konjac is grown in East and Southeast Asia and it is prized for its large starchy corms, used to create a flour and jelly of

2242-594: A variety of livestock, including cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. Anthropologists have determined that these people were related to the people now known as the Tai . They lived in tribal congregations, sometimes led by exiled Chinese. During the Three Kingdoms , the territory of present-day Yunnan, western Guizhou and southern Sichuan was collectively called Nanzhong . The dissolution of Chinese central authority led to increased autonomy for Yunnan and more power for

2360-680: A wide range of flora and fauna, and the province has been called a natural zoological and botanical garden. Bordering Chinese provincial-level divisions are Tibet , Sichuan , Guizhou and Guangxi . Starting from the east and working clockwise, bordering countries are Vietnam ( Hà Giang , Lào Cai , Lai Châu and Điện Biên provinces), Laos ( Phongsaly , Oudomxay and Luang Namtha provinces), Myanmar (states of Shan and Kachin ). The main border crossings are: There are several major lakes in Yunnan. The province has nine lakes with areas of over 30 km (12 sq mi). They include: Yunnan

2478-649: Is 1 cP divided by 1000 kg/m^3, close to the density of water. The kinematic viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cSt. The most frequently used systems of US customary, or Imperial , units are the British Gravitational (BG) and English Engineering (EE). In the BG system, dynamic viscosity has units of pound -seconds per square foot (lb·s/ft ), and in the EE system it has units of pound-force -seconds per square foot (lbf·s/ft ). The pound and pound-force are equivalent;

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2596-457: Is a linear combination of the shear and bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers. In geology , earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic deformation are sometimes called rheids . Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers . Close temperature control of

2714-469: Is a perennial plant , growing from a large corm up to 25 cm (10 in) in diameter. The single leaf is up to 1.3 m (4 ft) across, bipinnate , and divided into numerous leaflets. The flowers are produced on a spathe enclosed by a dark purple spadix up to 55 cm (22 in) long. The food made from the corm of this plant is also widely known in English by its Japanese name konnyaku , it

2832-462: Is a calculation derived from tests performed on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These calculations and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required. Nanoviscosity (viscosity sensed by nanoprobes) can be measured by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy . The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the newton -second per square meter (N·s/m ), also frequently expressed in

2950-550: Is a viscosity tensor that maps the velocity gradient tensor ∂ v k / ∂ r ℓ {\displaystyle \partial v_{k}/\partial r_{\ell }} onto the viscous stress tensor τ i j {\displaystyle \tau _{ij}} . Since the indices in this expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are 81 "viscosity coefficients" μ i j k l {\displaystyle \mu _{ijkl}} in total. However, assuming that

3068-495: Is called ideal or inviscid . For non-Newtonian fluid 's viscosity, there are pseudoplastic , plastic , and dilatant flows that are time-independent, and there are thixotropic and rheopectic flows that are time-dependent. The word "viscosity" is derived from the Latin viscum (" mistletoe "). Viscum also referred to a viscous glue derived from mistletoe berries. In materials science and engineering , there

3186-532: Is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity , and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction parallel to the normal vector of the plates (see illustrations to the right). If the velocity does not vary linearly with y {\displaystyle y} , then the appropriate generalization is: where τ = F / A {\displaystyle \tau =F/A} , and ∂ u / ∂ y {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial y}

3304-475: Is consumed in parts of China's Sichuan province; the corm is called moyu ( Chinese : 魔芋 ; lit. 'demonic taro'), and the jelly is called "konjac tofu" ( 魔芋豆腐 móyù dòufu ) or "snow konjac" ( 雪魔芋 xuě móyù ). In Vietnam , konjac is mainly grown in An Giang province. The corms are collected and processed into flour. The flour is used to make drinks, cakes, and noodles. The dried corm of

3422-462: Is cooked and consumed in China, Vietnam, Japan and Korea. The two basic types of cake are white and black. Noodles made from konnyaku are called shirataki . The corm of the konjac is often colloquially referred to as a yam , though it is not related to tubers of the family Dioscoreaceae . Wild forms grow naturally in China and Southeast Asia. Konjac has been used in Japan since the 6th century, as

3540-448: Is determined by the viscosity. The analogy with heat and mass transfer can be made explicit. Just as heat flows from high temperature to low temperature and mass flows from high density to low density, momentum flows from high velocity to low velocity. These behaviors are all described by compact expressions, called constitutive relations , whose one-dimensional forms are given here: where ρ {\displaystyle \rho }

3658-560: Is easy to visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow . In the Couette flow, a fluid is trapped between two infinitely large plates, one fixed and one in parallel motion at constant speed u {\displaystyle u} (see illustration to the right). If the speed of the top plate is low enough (to avoid turbulence), then in steady state the fluid particles move parallel to it, and their speed varies from 0 {\displaystyle 0} at

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3776-534: Is equal to the SI millipascal second (mPa·s). The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m /s), whereas the CGS unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St, or cm ·s = 0.0001 m ·s ), named after Sir George Gabriel Stokes . In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form. The submultiple centistokes (cSt) is often used instead, 1 cSt = 1 mm ·s  = 10  m ·s . 1 cSt

3894-414: Is highly diverse with about 620 species, including more than 580 natives (the remaining are introduced ). This equals almost 40% of the freshwater fish species in China. Of the Yunnan natives, more than 250 are endemic to the province and many of these are threatened. Several species that are restricted to single lakes (notably Dian , Erhai , Fuxian and Yilong ) are likely already are extinct. By far,

4012-458: Is hot at the valley bottoms, but there are freezing winds at the mountaintops. The terrain is largely mountainous, especially in the north and west. A series of high mountain chains spreads across the province. There is a distinct canyon region to the west and a plateau region to the east. Yunnan's major rivers flow through the deep valleys between the mountains. The average elevation is 1,980 m (6,500 ft). The mountains are highest in

4130-576: Is in terms of the standard (scalar) viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } and the bulk viscosity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } such that α = κ − 2 3 μ {\displaystyle \alpha =\kappa -{\tfrac {2}{3}}\mu } and β = γ = μ {\displaystyle \beta =\gamma =\mu } . In vector notation this appears as: where δ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\delta } }

4248-481: Is made by mixing konjac flour with water and limewater . Konjac cannot be eaten raw because it contains oxalic acid. The product come in various shades of gray; konnyaku made from corm are naturally dark, while those made from konjac flour are white. Hijiki is often added for the characteristic dark color and flavor. It is then boiled and cooled to solidify. Konjac made in noodle form is called shirataki and used in foods such as sukiyaki and gyūdon . Konjac

4366-658: Is not a fundamental law of nature, but rather a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law , Fick's law , and Ohm's law ) which serves to define the viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } . Its form is motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of fluids, μ {\displaystyle \mu } is independent of strain rate. Such fluids are called Newtonian . Gases , water , and many common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However, there are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from this behavior. For example: Trouton 's ratio

4484-496: Is often interest in understanding the forces or stresses involved in the deformation of a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the answer would be given by Hooke's law , which says that the force experienced by a spring is proportional to the distance displaced from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the deformation of a material from some rest state are called elastic stresses. In other materials, stresses are present which can be attributed to

4602-650: Is situated in a mountainous area, with high elevations in the Northwest and low elevations in the Southeast. Most of the population lives in the eastern part of the province. In the west, the altitude can vary from the mountain peaks to river valleys as much as 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Yunnan is rich in natural resources and has the largest diversity of plant life in China. Of the approximately 30,000 species of higher plants in China, Yunnan has perhaps 17,000 or more. Yunnan's reserves of aluminium , lead , zinc and tin are

4720-593: Is that the name means "south of Yun Range " ( 云岭之南 ) However, this has been disproven because the name "Yunling Mountains" first appeared in Tang dynasty (618–907) literature, but the name "Yunnan" first appeared during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). Modern research gives more conjectures. You Zhong said "Yunnan" means "south of the mountain (referring to the Cang Mountain ) with clouds". Wu Guangfan said "Yunnan" might be

4838-581: Is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, often simply referred to as the viscosity . It is denoted by the Greek letter mu ( μ ). The dynamic viscosity has the dimensions ( m a s s / l e n g t h ) / t i m e {\displaystyle \mathrm {(mass/length)/time} } , therefore resulting in the SI units and the derived units : The aforementioned ratio u / y {\displaystyle u/y}

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4956-408: Is the density, J {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } and q {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} } are the mass and heat fluxes, and D {\displaystyle D} and k t {\displaystyle k_{t}} are the mass diffusivity and thermal conductivity. The fact that mass, momentum, and energy (heat) transport are among

5074-425: Is the local shear velocity. This expression is referred to as Newton's law of viscosity . In shearing flows with planar symmetry, it is what defines μ {\displaystyle \mu } . It is a special case of the general definition of viscosity (see below), which can be expressed in coordinate-free form. Use of the Greek letter mu ( μ {\displaystyle \mu } ) for

5192-606: Is the ratio of extensional viscosity to shear viscosity . For a Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio is 3. Shear-thinning liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic. Viscosity may also depend on the fluid's physical state (temperature and pressure) and other, external , factors. For gases and other compressible fluids , it depends on temperature and varies very slowly with pressure. The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A magnetorheological fluid , for example, becomes thicker when subjected to

5310-745: Is the source of two rivers, the Xi River (there known as the Nanpan and Hongshui ) and the Yuan River . The Hongshui is a principal source stream of the Xi River. Rising as the Nanpan in eastern Yunnan province, it flows south and east to form part of the boundary between Guizhou province and Guangxi autonomous region. Flowing for 345 km (214 mi), it unites with the Yu River at Guiping to form what eventually becomes

5428-554: Is the unit tensor. This equation can be thought of as a generalized form of Newton's law of viscosity. The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of a fluid. Knowledge of κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is frequently not necessary in fluid dynamics problems. For example, an incompressible fluid satisfies ∇ ⋅ v = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {v} =0} and so

5546-676: The First Mongol invasion of Burma in the 1270s and 1280s. With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Ming dynasty destroyed the Yuan loyalists led by Basalawarmi and the remnants of the House of Duan in the Ming conquest of Yunnan by the early 1380s. The Ming installed Mu Ying and his family as hereditary aristocrats in Yunnan. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, large areas of Yunnan were administered under

5664-511: The Khmer peoples of Zhenla . Generally speaking, Nanzhao was then the most powerful kingdom in mainland Southeast Asia, and played an extremely active role in multistate interactions. In 859, Nanzhao captured Bozhou , and this event exacerbated the Nanzhao-Tang clashes. When the Tang governor of Annam took Bozhou back in the following year, Nanzhao, with the help of native peoples, occupied Hanoi as

5782-605: The San Francisco Bay Area among children and elderly people caused by suffocation while eating konjac candy, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued product warnings in 2001, and there were subsequent recalls in the US and Canada. Choking and intestinal blockage risk warnings have been published at more recent websites. Unlike gelatine and some other commonly used gelling agents , konjac fruit jelly does not melt readily in

5900-561: The Tang dynasty , Emperor Xuanzong gave Piluoge , the chief of Nanzhao , the title of "King of Yunnan", because Nanzhao originated from Yunnan county. Gradually the king of Yunnan controlled more and more territory, and "Yunnan" became the common name of this area. Therefore, the Yuan dynasty created the Yunnan Province after it occupied the Dali Kingdom . Han dynasty literature did not record

6018-611: The Three Kingdoms period , imperial Chinese authority in Yunnan weakened, and much of the region came under the control of the Cuanman . The area was later ruled by the Sino-Tibetan -speaking kingdom of Nanzhao from (738–937), followed by the Bai -ruled Dali Kingdom (937–1253). After the Mongol conquest of the region in the 13th century, Yunnan was conquered and ruled by the Ming dynasty . From

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6136-483: The Xi River . The province is drained by six major river systems: Yunnan is China's most diverse province, biologically as well as culturally. The province contains snow-capped mountains and true tropical environments, thus supporting an unusually full spectrum of species and vegetation types. The Yunnan camellia ( Camellia reticulata ) is the provincial emblem. During summer, the Great Plateau of Tibet acts as

6254-456: The Yuan dynasty onward, the area was part of a central-government sponsored population movement towards the southwestern frontier, with two major waves of migrants arriving from Han -majority areas in northern and southeast China. As with other parts of China's southwest, Japanese occupation in the north during World War II forced another migration of Han people into the region. These two waves of migration contributed to Yunnan being one of

6372-577: The Zahn cup and the Ford viscosity cup —with the usage of each type varying mainly according to the industry. Also used in coatings, a Stormer viscometer employs load-based rotation to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers. Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves within

6490-459: The deformation rate over time . These are called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as water the stresses which arise from shearing the fluid do not depend on the distance the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on how quickly the shearing occurs. Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it

6608-425: The density of the fluid ( ρ ). It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu ( ν ): and has the dimensions ( l e n g t h ) 2 / t i m e {\displaystyle \mathrm {(length)^{2}/time} } , therefore resulting in the SI units and the derived units : In very general terms, the viscous stresses in a fluid are defined as those resulting from

6726-462: The native chieftain system . Under the Qing dynasty a war with Burma also occurred in the 1760s due to the attempted consolidation of borderlands under local chiefs by both China and Burma. Yunnan was a destination for Han Chinese during Yuan rule. Migrants moved into the area during Ming and Qing rule. During the Ming dynasty, 3 million Han Chinese mostly from Nanjing (the original Nanjing population

6844-431: The shear viscosity . However, at least one author discourages the use of this terminology, noting that μ {\displaystyle \mu } can appear in non-shearing flows in addition to shearing flows. In fluid dynamics, it is sometimes more appropriate to work in terms of kinematic viscosity (sometimes also called the momentum diffusivity ), defined as the ratio of the dynamic viscosity ( μ ) over

6962-550: The "Five Foot Way" – was extended south to around present day Qujing , in eastern Yunnan. In 109 BC, the Han dynasty conquered Dian during its southern expeditions . Under orders from Emperor Wu , General Guo Chang  [ zh ] ( 郭昌 ) was sent south to Yunnan, eventually establishing the Yizhou commandery . By this time, agricultural technology in Yunnan had improved markedly. The local people used bronze tools, plows and kept

7080-620: The 1,000 mile journey to Kunming , capital of Yunnan in China's mountainous southwest. It was here that the National Southwest Associated University (commonly known as Lianda University) was established. For eight years, staff, professors and students had to survive and operate in makeshift quarters that were subject to sporadic bombing campaigns by the Japanese. There were dire shortages of food, equipment, books, clothing and other essential needs, but they managed to conduct

7198-974: The 19th century by scientists of the French National Museum of Natural History , Paris, in connection with permanent settlements of missionaries of the Missions étrangères de Paris in north-west Yunnan, among them noticeably Jean-André Soulié and Felix Biet . From 1916 to 1917, Roy Chapman Andrews and Yvette Borup Andrews led the Asiatic Zoological Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History through much of western and southern Yunnan, as well as other provinces of China. The book, Camps and Trails in China , records their experiences. Other notable explorers include Heinrich Handel-Mazzetti ; George Forrest ; Joseph Francis Charles Rock , who from 1922 to 1949 spent most of his time studying

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7316-491: The BG and EE systems. Nonstandard units include the reyn (lbf·s/in ), a British unit of dynamic viscosity. In the automotive industry the viscosity index is used to describe the change of viscosity with temperature. The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity , usually symbolized by ϕ = 1 / μ {\displaystyle \phi =1/\mu } or F = 1 / μ {\displaystyle F=1/\mu } , depending on

7434-519: The Cuan clan ruled eastern Yunnan for over four hundred years. International trade flowed through Yunnan. An ancient overland pre- Tang trade route from Yunnan Province passed through Irrawaddy in Burma to reach Bengal . Yunnan was inhabited by so-called barbarians not fully under the control of the Tang government and the route, though ancient, was not used much in pre-Tang times, and Chinese attempts to control

7552-603: The Dali plain, resulting in only another slaughter. By the end of the eighth century, Tang was no longer a major threat to Nanzhao. Nanzhao's expansion lasted for several decades. In 829, Nanzhao suddenly plundered Sichuan and entered Chengdu . When it retreated, hundreds of Sichuan people, including skilled artisans, were taken to Yunnan. In 832, the Nanzhao army captured the capital of the Pyu kingdom in modern upper Burma . Nanzhao also attacked

7670-537: The Lufeng Formation and the Lunan Group (Lumeiyi, Xiaotun, and Caijiacong formations). In this area is the noted Stone Forest or Shilin, eroded vertical pinnacles of limestone (Maokou Formation). In the eastern part the rivers generally run eastwards. The western half is characterized by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south. Yunnan has a generally mild climate with pleasant and fair weather because of

7788-542: The Nanzhao forces were driven away. But Tang China had lost its ability to attack Nanzhao. While Nanzhao was being defeated in Annam, it still occasionally attacked Sichuan. In 869, Shilong ( 世隆 ), the eighth king and the first empire of Nanzhao, invaded Sichuan. In 874, Nanzhao attacked Sichuan again. In 902, Zheng Maisi, the Qingpingguan ( 清平官 ,"Prime Minister") of Nanzhao, murdered the infant king of Nanzhao, and established

7906-486: The Tang army moved to Bozhou. When the Tang forces returned, Nanzhao troops retreated from Hanoi but attacked and plundered Yongzhou . In the winter of 862, Nanzhao, allying with local groups, led an army of over 50,000 men to invade Annam again. It is reported that the Tang forces lost over 150,000 soldiers (either killed or captured by Nanzhao) in the two Annam battles. The autumn of 866 saw Tang victory in Hanoi and soon all of

8024-425: The bottom to u {\displaystyle u} at the top. Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a force resisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid applies on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep

8142-597: The convention used, measured in reciprocal poise (P , or cm · s · g ), sometimes called the rhe . Fluidity is seldom used in engineering practice. At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the Saybolt viscometer , and expressing kinematic viscosity in units of Saybolt universal seconds (SUS). Other abbreviations such as SSU ( Saybolt seconds universal ) or SUV ( Saybolt universal viscosity ) are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS according to

8260-438: The dependence on some of these properties is negligible in certain cases. For example, the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid does not vary significantly with the rate of deformation. Zero viscosity (no resistance to shear stress ) is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids ; otherwise, the second law of thermodynamics requires all fluids to have positive viscosity. A fluid that has zero viscosity (non-viscous)

8378-461: The dynamic viscosity (sometimes also called the absolute viscosity ) is common among mechanical and chemical engineers , as well as mathematicians and physicists. However, the Greek letter eta ( η {\displaystyle \eta } ) is also used by chemists, physicists, and the IUPAC . The viscosity μ {\displaystyle \mu } is sometimes also called

8496-407: The end of the year 2021, the total population is 48.01 million. [1] Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's dynamic resistance to a change in shape or to movement of its neighboring portions relative to one another. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of thickness ; for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water . Viscosity is defined scientifically as

8614-453: The equivalent forms pascal - second (Pa·s), kilogram per meter per second (kg·m ·s ) and poiseuille (Pl). The CGS unit is the poise (P, or g·cm ·s = 0.1 Pa·s), named after Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille . It is commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). The centipoise is convenient because the viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cP, and one centipoise

8732-432: The etymology of "Yunnan", and there are many theories about its origin. One common theory states that the name means "south of colorful clouds" ( 彩云之南 ; cǎiyún zhī nán ). Some annals in the Ming dynasty , for example Dian Lüe ( 滇略 ) and Yunnan General Annals ( 云南通志 ), support this. However, modern historian Tan Qixiang states that this theory is a superficial explanation of the literal meaning. Another common theory

8850-513: The flora, peoples and languages of southwest China, mainly in Yunnan; and Peter Goullart , a White Russian who studied Naxi culture and lived in Lijiang from 1940 to 1949. Yunnan is the most southwestern province in China, with the Tropic of Cancer running through its southern part. The province has an area of 394,100 km (152,200 sq mi), 4.1% of the nation's total. The northern part of

8968-459: The fluid is essential to obtain accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C. A rheometer is used for fluids that cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of shear rates ( Newtonian fluids ). The fluids without

9086-424: The formulation of drugs and devices such as oral colon -targeting drug delivery systems (OCDDS), which enable drugs to be delivered directly to the colon. In traditional hand papermaking in Japan, konnyaku imparts strength to paper for dyeing, rubbing, folding—and other manipulations, such as momigami . Shirataki noodles have gained popularity in the US for their low carbohydrate content. Yunnan Yunnan

9204-477: The incident. A British officer testified that the Muslims did not rebel for religious reasons and that the Chinese were tolerant of different religions and were unlikely to have caused the revolt by interfering with the practice of Islam. Loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing forces crush the rebel Muslims. The Qing armies massacred only Muslims who had rebelled or supported the rebels and spared Muslims who took no part in

9322-436: The jellies after a 21-month-old Japanese boy choked to death on a frozen MannanLife konjac jelly. 17 people died from choking on konjac between 1995 and 2008. MannanLife konjac jelly's packaging added a note to consumers, advising them to cut the product into smaller pieces before serving it to small children. In 1999, 8-year-old Michelle Enrile from San Jose, California , choked on a piece of konjac gel candy. She lapsed into

9440-442: The konjac plant contains around 40% glucomannan gum. This polysaccharide makes konjac jelly a viscous substance that may be used in traditional Chinese medicine . Konjac can also be made into a popular East Asian fruit jelly snack, known variously in the US as lychee cups (after a typical flavor) or konjac candy, usually served in bite-sized plastic cups. Perhaps because of several highly publicized deaths and near-deaths in

9558-630: The largest in China, and there are also major reserves of copper and nickel . Historically, the southwestern Silk Road to Bhitargarh in Bangladesh passed through modern Yunnan. Parts of Yunnan formed the Dian Kingdom during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The Han dynasty conquered the Dian Kingdom in the late 2nd century BC, establishing the Yizhou Commandery in its place. During the chaos of

9676-529: The liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the sensor shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity. This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a viscosity reading. A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy. Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rheometers that apply extensional stress . Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rheometer . Apparent viscosity

9794-604: The local tribal structures. In AD 225, the famed statesman Zhuge Liang led three columns into Yunnan to pacify the tribes. His seven captures of Meng Huo , a local magnate, is mythologized in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms . In the 4th century, northern China was largely overrun by nomadic tribes from the north. In the 320s, the Cuan ( 爨 ) clan migrated into Yunnan. Cuan Chen ( 爨琛 ) named himself king and held authority from Lake Dian , then known as Kunchuan . Henceforth

9912-423: The most diverse order in Yunnan are Cypriniformes , both in total species number and number of endemics. The unique Sinopyrophorus bioluminescent beetles were described from Yunnan in 2019. Yunnan has been designated: A main source of wealth lies in its vast mineral resources ; indeed, mining is the leading industry in Yunnan. Yunnan has proven deposits of 86 kinds of minerals in 2,700 places. Some 13% of

10030-453: The most ethnically diverse provinces of China, with ethnic minorities accounting for about 34 percent of its total population. Major ethnic groups include Yi , Bai , Hani , Zhuang , Dai , and Miao . Yunnan has also been identified as the birthplace of tea , and as the region of origin of the plant genus Cannabis . The name "Yunnan" first referred to a place when the Han dynasty created Yunnan County near modern Xiangyun . During

10148-435: The most relevant processes in continuum mechanics is not a coincidence: these are among the few physical quantities that are conserved at the microscopic level in interparticle collisions. Thus, rather than being dictated by the fast and complex microscopic interaction timescale, their dynamics occurs on macroscopic timescales, as described by the various equations of transport theory and hydrodynamics. Newton's law of viscosity

10266-484: The mouth. Some products form a gel strong enough to require chewing to disintegrate the gel. Though the product is intended to be eaten by gently squeezing the container, a consumer can suck the product out with enough force to unintentionally lodge it in the trachea. Because of this hazard, the European Union and Australia banned konjac fruit jelly. Some konjac jelly snacks are not of a size and consistency that pose

10384-769: The north where they reach more than 5,000 m (16,000 ft); in the south they rise no higher than 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The highest point in the north is the Kawagebo Peak in Deqin County on the Diqing Plateau , which is about 6,740 m (22,110 ft); and the lowest is in the Red River Valley in Hekou County , near the Vietnamese border, with an elevation of 76.4 m (251 ft). The eastern half of

10502-711: The plateau are the Lower Permian Maokou Formation, characterized by thick limestone deposits, the Lower Permian Qixia Formation, characterised by dolomitic limestones and dolomites , the Upper Permian basalts of the Ermeishan Formation (formerly Omeishan plateau basalts), and the red sandstones , mudstones , siltstones , and conglomerates of the Mesozoic – Paleogene , including

10620-524: The proved deposits of minerals are the largest of their kind in China, and two-thirds of the deposits are among the largest of their kind in the Yangtze River valley and in south China. Yunnan ranks first in the country in deposits of zinc , lead , tin , cadmium , indium , thallium and crocidolite . Other deposits include iron , coal , copper , gold , mercury , silver , antimony and sulfur . More than 150 kinds of minerals have been discovered in

10738-584: The province forms part of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau . The province borders Guangxi and Guizhou in the east, Sichuan in the north, and the Tibet Autonomous Region in the northwest. It shares a border of 4,060 km (2,520 mi) with Myanmar ( Kachin and Shan States ) in the west, Laos ( Luang Namtha , Oudomxay , and Phongsaly Provinces ) in the south and Vietnam ( Hà Giang , Lào Cai , Lai Châu , and Điện Biên Provinces ) in

10856-624: The province is a limestone plateau with karst scenery and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges; the western half is characterised by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south. These include the Nu Jiang ( Salween ), the Lancang ( Mekong ), and the Jinsha ( Yangtze ), which flow in close proximity in the Three Parallel Rivers protected area. The rugged, vertical terrain produces

10974-554: The province's location on south-facing mountain slopes, receiving the influence of both the Pacific and Indian oceans, and although the growing period is long, the rugged terrain provides little arable land . See Agriculture in Yunnan . Under the Köppen climate classification , much of the province lies within the subtropical highland (Köppen Cwb ) or humid subtropical zone ( Cwa ), with cool to warm winters, and temperate summers, except in

11092-614: The province. It assumed strategic significance, particularly as the Burma Road from Lashio , in Burma to Kunming was a fought over supply line of vital importance to China's war effort. University faculty and students in the east had originally decamped to Changsha , capital of Hunan . But as Japanese forces were gaining more territory they eventually bombed Changsha in February 1938. The 800 faculty and students who were left had to flee and made

11210-582: The province. The potential value of the proven deposits in Yunnan is 3 trillion yuan , 40% of which come from fuel minerals, 7.3% from metallic minerals and 52.7% from nonmetallic minerals. Yunnan has sufficient rainfall and many rivers and lakes. The annual water flow originating in the province is 200 cubic kilometres, three times that of the Yellow River . The rivers flowing into the province from outside add 160 cubic kilometres, which means there are more than ten thousand cubic metres of water for each person in

11328-475: The province. The province is said to have "as much flowering plant diversity as the rest of the Northern Hemisphere put together". Yunnan has less than 4% of the land of China, yet the province harbors around 42.6% of all protected plant species and 72.5% of all protected wild animals in the country, of which 15% are strictly endemic to Yunnan. Yunnan is home to, most notably, the southeast Asian gaur ,

11446-624: The province. This is four times the average in the country. The rich water resources offer abundant hydro-energy. China is constructing a series of dams on the Mekong to develop it as a waterway and source of power; the first was completed at Manwan in 1993. Yunnan consists of sixteen prefecture-level divisions : eight prefecture-level cities and eight autonomous prefectures : These 16 prefecture-level divisions are in turn subdivided into 129 county-level divisions (17 districts , 18 county-level cities , 65 counties , and 29 autonomous counties ). At

11564-513: The regional commander of Jiannan (present-day Sichuan ), led a Tang campaign against Nanzhao. The king of Nanzhao, Geluofeng, regarded the previous incident as a personal affair and wrote to Xianyu to seek peace. However, Xianyu Zhongtong detained the Nanzhao envoys and turned down the appeal. Confronted with Tang armies, Nanzhao immediately turned its allegiance to the Tibetan Empire . The Tubo and Nanzhao agreed to be "fraternal states"; Geluofeng

11682-515: The relative velocity of different fluid particles. As such, the viscous stresses must depend on spatial gradients of the flow velocity. If the velocity gradients are small, then to a first approximation the viscous stresses depend only on the first derivatives of the velocity. (For Newtonian fluids, this is also a linear dependence.) In Cartesian coordinates, the general relationship can then be written as where μ i j k ℓ {\displaystyle \mu _{ijk\ell }}

11800-458: The route were disrupted by the rise of Nanzhao . Yunnan was settled by several local tribes, clans, and cultures before the 8th century. Around Lake Erhai , namely, the Dali area, there emerged six zhao : Mengzi ( 蒙巂 ), Yuexi ( 越析 ), Langqiong ( 浪穹 ), Dengdan ( 邆赕 ), Shilling ( 施浪 ), and Mengshe ( 蒙舍 ). Zhao ( 诏 ) was an indigenous non-Chinese language term meaning "king" or "kingdom." Among

11918-468: The running of a modern university . Over those eight years of war (1937–1945), Lianda became famous nationwide for having and producing many, if not most, of China's most prominent academics, scholars, scientists and intellectuals. Both of China's only Nobel laureates in physics Yang Chen-Ning & Tsung-Dao Lee studied at Lianda in Kunming. Thousands of plant, insect and mammal species were described in

12036-458: The same name. It is also used as a vegan substitute for gelatin . In Japan, over 90% of all domestically produced konjac is made in Gunma Prefecture . In Japanese cuisine , konjac ( konnyaku ) appears in dishes such as oden . It is typically mottled grey and firmer in consistency than most gelatins. It has very little flavor; the common variety tastes vaguely like salt , usually with

12154-475: The six regimes Mengshe was located south of the other five; therefore given the new, larger context, it was called Nanzhao (Southern Kingdom). By the 730s Nanzhao had succeeded in bringing the Erhai Lake–area under its authority. In 738, the western Yunnan was united by Piluoge , the fourth king of Nanzhao, who was confirmed by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty as king of Yunnan. Ruling from Dali ,

12272-679: The southeast. For practical purposes, all of Yunnan province falls within the Zomia region of Asia. Yunnan is at the far eastern edge of the Himalayan uplift , and was pushed up in the Pleistocene , primarily in the Middle Pleistocene , although the uplift continues into the present. The eastern part of the province is a limestone plateau with karst topography and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges. The main surface formations of

12390-555: The term fugitive elasticity for fluid viscosity. However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many "solids" (even granite ) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even under arbitrarily small stress. Such materials are best described as viscoelastic —that is, possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation). Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The extensional viscosity

12508-715: The term containing κ {\displaystyle \kappa } drops out. Moreover, κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is often assumed to be negligible for gases since it is 0 {\displaystyle 0} in a monatomic ideal gas . One situation in which κ {\displaystyle \kappa } can be important is the calculation of energy loss in sound and shock waves , described by Stokes' law of sound attenuation , since these phenomena involve rapid expansions and compressions. The defining equations for viscosity are not fundamental laws of nature, so their usefulness, as well as methods for measuring or calculating

12626-473: The thirteen kings of Nanzhao ruled over more than two centuries and played a vital role in the dynamic relationship between the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire as a buffer state . By the 750s, Nanzhao had conquered Yunnan and became a potential rival to Tang China. The following period saw several conflicts between Tang China and Nanzhao. In 750, Nanzhao attacked and captured Yaozhou, the largest Tang settlement in Yunnan. In 751, Xianyu Zhongtong ( 鮮于仲通 ),

12744-583: The top plate moving at constant speed. In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly from zero at the bottom to u {\displaystyle u} at the top. Moreover, the magnitude of the force, F {\displaystyle F} , acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to the speed u {\displaystyle u} and the area A {\displaystyle A} of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation y {\displaystyle y} : The proportionality factor

12862-479: The truly tropical south, where temperatures regularly exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in the warmer half of the year. In general , January average temperatures range from 8 to 17 °C (46 to 63 °F); July averages vary from 21 to 27 °C (70 to 81 °F). Average annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 2,300 mm (24 to 91 in), with over half the rain occurring between June and August. The plateau region has moderate temperatures. The western canyon region

12980-507: The two systems differ only in how force and mass are defined. In the BG system the pound is a basic unit from which the unit of mass (the slug ) is defined by Newton's Second Law , whereas in the EE system the units of force and mass (the pound-force and pound-mass respectively) are defined independently through the Second Law using the proportionality constant g c . Kinematic viscosity has units of square feet per second (ft /s) in both

13098-579: The uprising. In 1894, George Ernest Morrison , an Australian correspondent for The Times , traveled from Beijing to British-occupied Burma via Yunnan. His book, An Australian in China , details his experiences. The 1905 Tibetan Rebellion in which Tibetan Buddhist Lamas attacked and killed French Catholic missionaries spread to Yunnan. Yunnan was transformed by the events of the Second Sino-Japanese War , which caused many east coast refugees and industrial establishments to relocate to

13216-403: The viscosity depends only space- and time-dependent macroscopic fields (such as temperature and density) defining local equilibrium. Nevertheless, viscosity may still carry a non-negligible dependence on several system properties, such as temperature, pressure, and the amplitude and frequency of any external forcing. Therefore, precision measurements of viscosity are only defined with respect to

13334-571: The viscosity rank-2 tensor is isotropic reduces these 81 coefficients to three independent parameters α {\displaystyle \alpha } , β {\displaystyle \beta } , γ {\displaystyle \gamma } : and furthermore, it is assumed that no viscous forces may arise when the fluid is undergoing simple rigid-body rotation, thus β = γ {\displaystyle \beta =\gamma } , leaving only two independent parameters. The most usual decomposition

13452-500: The viscosity, must be established using separate means. A potential issue is that viscosity depends, in principle, on the full microscopic state of the fluid, which encompasses the positions and momenta of every particle in the system. Such highly detailed information is typically not available in realistic systems. However, under certain conditions most of this information can be shown to be negligible. In particular, for Newtonian fluids near equilibrium and far from boundaries (bulk state),

13570-669: Was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1253 after Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols. The Duans incorporated into the Mongol dominion as Maharajas of the new province. The Mongolian prince sent to administer the region with them was killed. In 1273, Kublai Khan reformed the province and appointed the semu Ajall Shams al-Din Omar as its governor. The Yunnan Province during the Yuan dynasty included significant portions of Upper Burma after

13688-432: Was given the titles zanpuzhong ("younger brother"). The Nanzhao-Tubo alliance ensured a disastrous defeat for Xianyu's expedition, with the Tang general's army of 80,000 men being reduced to a quarter of its original size. Tang China did not give up after one failure. In 753, another expedition was prepared, but this was also defeated by Nanzhao. In 754, the Tang organized an army of more than 100,000 troops that advanced to

13806-580: Was known as Dian . The Chu general Zhuang Qiao  [ zh ] ( 庄蹻 ) entered the region from the upper Yangtze River and set himself up as "King of Dian". He and his followers brought into Yunnan an influx of Chinese influence, the start of a long history of migration and cultural expansion. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified China and extended his authority south. Commanderies and counties were established in Yunnan. An existing road in Sichuan  –

13924-574: Was later largely replaced by Wu-speakers), and some from Shanxi and Hebei, settled in Yunnan. Although largely forgotten, the bloody Panthay Rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other local minorities against the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty caused the deaths of up to a million people in Yunnan. The Manchu official Shuxing'a started an anti-Muslim massacre, which led to the rebellion. Shuxing'a developed

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