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86-775: Administratively this bay belongs to the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of the Russian Federation . To the west is Cape Vankarem and to the east Neskynpil'gyn Lagoon and Cape Serdtse-Kamen . The length of the bay is 100 km. Its mouth is only 2.8 km because of the Serykh Gusey Islands and the Belyaka Spit (Kosa Belyaka), separate it from the Arctic Ocean. The width increases to 37 km as it goes southwards and inland. The depth of Kolyuchinskaya Bay

172-671: A large stream of foreigners entered Chukotka, lured to the region by the Yukon gold rush in 1898. In 1909, in order to keep the region within Russian control, two districts were created within the Anadyr Region: the districts of Anadyr and Chukotka. The Russian government granted concessions to foreign companies such as the Hudson's Bay Company and the US Northeast Siberia Company , which

258-710: A number of continental shelves , including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , and the Russian continental shelf , which is sometimes called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is larger. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves: the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf . Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in

344-701: A year later, the Soviets permanently conquered the island, removing the remaining inhabitants, and thereby ending all foreign influence. Chukotka was subject to collectivization and resettlement of the indigenous people, but this process started later and was less extreme than in other parts of the Soviet Union. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, everything was done to start tin production as quickly as possible in Chukotka. Mining rapidly developed, and this industry would become its economic base. Also during

430-688: Is Molloy Hole in the Fram Strait , at about 5,550 m (18,210 ft). The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Beaufort Shelf of North America and the Alpha Ridge ), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes

516-683: Is 7 to 14 m. The bay is covered with ice most of the year. This bay has an inlet in its southern end known as the Kuetkuyyim Inlet (Kuetkuyyim Zaliv). The Ioniveyem and the Ulyuveyem River flow into it from the south. In 1793, the bay was named Count Bezborodko Bay in honor of Russian statesman Alexander Bezborodko . The locals could not get accustomed to this name and the bay was later renamed Kolyuchinskaya after nearby Kolyuchin Island . This Chukotka Autonomous Okrug location article

602-453: Is Vladislav Kuznetsov, who replaced Roman Kopin on 15 March 2023. Kuznetsov previously served as deputy prime minister of the unrecognized Luhansk People's Republic . The governor is elected by universal suffrage for a term of 5 years. Roman Abramovich was governor of Chukotka from 2000 to 2008. Abramovich had spent over US$ 1 billion in the region (partly as normal tax payments) on developing infrastructure and providing direct aid to

688-528: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Chukotka ( / tʃ ʊ ˈ k ɒ t k ə / chuu-KOT-kə ; Russian : Чукотка [tɕʊˈkotkə] ), officially the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug , is the easternmost federal subject of Russia . It is an autonomous okrug situated in the Russian Far East , and shares a border with the Sakha Republic to

774-414: Is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer on account of weak mixing between layers. However, over the past couple of decades a combination of the warming and the shoaling of Atlantic water are leading to

860-416: Is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer. The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately −1.8 °C (28.8 °F), near the freezing point of seawater . The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that

946-560: Is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night , extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions. Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by continuous daylight ( midnight sun ), and air temperatures can rise slightly above 0 °C (32 °F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It

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1032-451: Is one of the very few places in Russia where there are more men than women. Source: As of June 2022, Chukotka had the lowest life expectancy in Russia. This statistic varies greatly from year to year due to the region's relatively small population. According to the 2021 Census , the ethnic composition was: Historical figures are given below: There are 86 recognized ethnic groups in

1118-654: Is predominantly cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin . Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 m (3,000 ft) depth. It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in

1204-408: Is primarily populated by ethnic Russians , Chukchi , and other indigenous peoples . It is the only autonomous okrug in Russia that is not included in, or subordinate to, another federal subject, having separated from Magadan Oblast in 1992. It is home to Lake Elgygytgyn , an impact crater lake, and Anyuyskiy , an extinct volcano. The village of Uelen is the easternmost settlement in Russia and

1290-483: Is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current. It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s. Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C [37 °F]). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water and remains submerged only due to

1376-604: Is very mountainous, containing the Chukotsky Mountains (highest point Iskhodnaya ) and the Anadyr Highlands . Chukotka's rivers spring from its northern and central mountains. The major rivers are: The largest lakes are Lake Krasnoye , west of Anadyr, Lake Pekulney and Lake Elgygytgyn in central Chukotka. Other important lakes are Koolen , Lake Ioni , Pychgynmygytgyn , Medvezhye , Achchyon and Maynits . The okrug's extensive coastline has several peninsulas,

1462-655: The Arctic Mediterranean Sea . It has also been described as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing world ocean . The Arctic Ocean includes the North Pole region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere and extends south to about 60°N . The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by Eurasia and North America, and the borders follow topographic features:

1548-722: The Bering Strait on the Pacific side and the Greenland Scotland Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of

1634-726: The Chukchi Peninsula , the west coast of Alaska , and the Aleutian Islands . Then from 1821 to 1825, Ferdinand von Wrangel and Fyodor Matyushkin led expeditions along the coast of the East Siberian Sea and explored the Kolyma , Great Anyuy , and Little Anyuy Rivers. Chukotka remained mostly outside the control of the Russian Empire and consequently other foreign powers (American, British, Norwegian) began to hunt and trade in

1720-590: The Cretaceous period, the Canadian Basin opened, and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies built out the large Mackenzie Delta. The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangea , beginning in the Triassic period, opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening

1806-593: The Eurasian Basin , which is 4,000–4,500 m (13,100–14,800 ft) deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains , ocean deeps , and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft). The deepest point

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1892-629: The Franz Josef Land ). The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic Era. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic periods led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoirs for current day oil and gas deposits. During

1978-569: The Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland ( c.  2400–1800 BC and c.  800–1 BC ); and the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik . The Dorset culture spread across Arctic North America between 500 BC and AD 1500. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of

2064-655: The Northwest Passage , to " Cathay " ( China ) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in that era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though, since these were often surrounded by pack-ice , their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts , more conservative than some of

2150-624: The Thule people , ancestors of the modern Inuit . The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600, arising around the Bering Strait and later encompassing almost the entire Arctic region of North America. The Thule people were the ancestors of the Inuit, who now live in Alaska, Northwest Territories , Nunavut , Nunavik (northern Quebec), Labrador and Greenland. For much of European history ,

2236-740: The sale of Alaska in 1867, it has been the only part of Russia lying partially in the Western Hemisphere . Chukotka is bordered in the north by the Chukchi Sea and the East Siberian Sea , which are part of the Arctic Ocean ; in the east by the Bering Strait and the Bering Sea , part of the Pacific Ocean ; in the south by Kamchatka Krai and Magadan Oblast ; and in the west by the Sakha Republic . The Chukchi Peninsula projects eastward forming

2322-419: The 17th century, the fort regained some importance when the sea route from Anadyrsk to Kamchatka was discovered. It was used as the staging base for expeditions to Kamchatka and all other forts and settlements were made subject to Anadyrsk. When the wealth of Kamchatka's natural resources was discovered, the Russian government started to give the far north-eastern region more serious attention. In 1725, Tsar Peter

2408-571: The Anadyr River and destroyed the Chukchi garrison on the Arctic Ocean. His ruthless methods had some limited success in forcing tribute from some Chukchi. But in 1747, the Chukchi defeated the Russian regiment and killed Pavlutsky. Realizing that the Chukchi could not easily be subjugated by military means, the Russians changed tactics and offered the Chukchi citizenship in the Russian Empire. A peace treaty

2494-647: The Arctic Ocean as mafic oceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the Chukchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the "triple-junction" of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in the Late Cretaceous epoch . Throughout the Cenozoic Era, the subduction of the Pacific plate,

2580-596: The Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the Mediterranean Sea , referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with the Atlantic Basin , "where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing". The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07 × 10 km , equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation

2666-573: The Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April—about 20–50 cm (7.9–19.7 in) over the frozen ocean. The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago, when the global climate underwent

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2752-626: The Arctic Ocean: Different authorities put various marginal seas in either the Arctic Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean, including: Hudson Bay , Baffin Bay , the Norwegian Sea , and Hudson Strait . The main islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Ocean are, from the prime meridian west: There are several ports and harbours on the Arctic Ocean. The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises

2838-531: The Bering Strait between Siberia and the Alaska Peninsula , and encloses the north side of the Gulf of Anadyr . The peninsula's easternmost point, Cape Dezhnev , is also the easternmost point of mainland Russia. Ecologically, Chukotka can be divided into three distinct areas: the northern Arctic desert, the central tundra , and the taiga in the south. About half of its area is above the Arctic Circle . This area

2924-471: The Canadian Archipelago. As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout

3010-486: The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Chukotka has large reserves of oil , natural gas , coal , gold , and tungsten , which are slowly being mined, but much of the rural population survives on subsistence reindeer herding, whale hunting , and fishing . The urban population is employed in mining , administration, construction, cultural work, education, medicine, and other occupations. The largest companies in

3096-538: The Chukotka economy by developing its infrastructure, schools, and housing. This has helped to double the GDP of the region and to more than triple the income of its residents. In 2004, Abramovich tried to resign from this position but was reappointed governor for another term by Vladimir Putin . In early July 2008, it was announced that President Dmitry Medvedev had accepted Abramovich's latest request to resign as governor of Chukotka, although his various charitable activities in

3182-612: The Duma of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug on 11 July 2008 by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in connection with the early resignation of Abramovich. On 8 September 2013, Kopin was elected governor. On 15 March 2023, Vladislav Kuznetsov replaced Kopin as the governor of Chukotka. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is administratively divided into the following districts : Along the Arctic coast (from west to east): Bilibinsky District (northwest), Chaunsky District around Chaunskaya Bay, then Iultinsky District , and finally Chukotsky District at

3268-507: The European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested : the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces. Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route ). The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km (5,427,000 sq mi), almost

3354-640: The Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force , which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side. Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to

3440-425: The Great ordered Vitus Bering to explore Kamchatka and Afanasy Shestakov to lead a military expedition to subjugate the Chukchi. This expedition failed when the fleet suffered shipwreck and the survivors, including Shestakov, were killed by the Chukchi. In 1731, Dmitry Pavlutsky tried again, aided by Cossacks, Yukaghirs , and Koryaks (indigenous Siberian tribes that were subjugated earlier). Pavlutsky sailed up

3526-523: The Gulf of Anadyr and in the river valleys grow small larch, pine, birch, poplar, and willow trees. More than 900 species of plants grow in Chukotka, including 400 species of moss and lichen. It is home to 220 bird species and 30 fresh water fish species. Chukotka's climate is influenced by its location on the three neighboring seas: the Bering Sea , the East Siberian Sea , and the Chukchi Sea with its weather characterized by cold northerly winds that can quickly change to wet southern winds. Cape Navarin has

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3612-419: The Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea. In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m [160 ft]) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than

3698-444: The North American polar region goes back at least 17,000–50,000 years, during the Wisconsin glaciation . At this time, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to the Settlement of the Americas . Early Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset ( c.  3200–850 BC ); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC);

3784-432: The area from about 1820 onwards. After the sale of Alaska to the United States, American whalers and traders especially extended their activities into Chukotka and foreign influence reached its peak. By 1880, the Russians reacted by setting up coastal patrols to stop American ships and confiscate their property. And in 1888, the administrative region of Anadyr was created. Yet Russian control diminished again and around 1900,

3870-608: The average winter value of 15,600,000 km (6,023,200 sq mi). The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km (2,702,700 sq mi), with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice. Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island , and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in

3956-446: The closest substantial settlement to the United States ( Alaska ). The autonomous okrug covers an area of over 737,700 square kilometers (284,800 sq mi), and is the seventh-largest federal subject in Russia, although it has a population of only 50,526. Chukotka is the second-least-populated federal subject, and the least densely populated federal subject in Russia. The region is the northeasternmost region of Russia, and since

4042-441: The collision of India with Eurasia, and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene Epoch and the Eocene Epoch, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside. Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. The Arctic Coring Expedition drilling shed some light on

4128-527: The eastern cape. Along the Pacific coast (from north to south): Providensky District south of Chukotsky, southern Iultinsky District around Kresta Bay, and finally eastern Anadyrsky District at the Anadyr Estuary. Interior: The western quarter of the Okrug is Bilibinsky District, and the rest of the interior is Anadyrsky District. Population : 47,490 ( 2021 Census ) ; 50,526 ( 2010 Census ) ; 53,824 ( 2002 Census ) ; 157,528 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug

4214-437: The explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick and persists year-round. Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in the Fram Expedition from 1893 to 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard , with air support. The first nautical transit of

4300-399: The far north-eastern coast and established winter quarters on the upstream portion of the Anadyr River that became the fortified settlement of Anadyrsk . Dezhnyov tried to subjugate the Chukchi and exact tribute during the next ten years, but was mostly unsuccessful. Eventually, the fort was abandoned, because of the harsh northern conditions and lack of game animals for food. At the end of

4386-440: The formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth range of 150–900 m (490–2,950 ft) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This

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4472-400: The frozen rivers to connect regional settlements in a uniform network. The Anadyr Highway is under construction to link Chukotka to Magadan , and to connect the settlements of Anadyr, Bilibino , Komsomolsky and Egvekinot within Chukotka. In 2009, replacement of the emergency bridge through Loren River on the busy local road from Lavrentiya to Lorino (40 km (25 mi)) became

4558-482: The highest number of hurricanes and storms in Russia. The coastal areas are windy with little precipitation, between 200 and 400 mm (7.9 and 15.7 in) per year. Temperature varies between −35 and −15 °C (−31 and 5 °F) in January, and between +5 and +14 °C (41 and 57 °F) in July. Growing season is short, lasting only 80 to 100 days per year. The first inhabitants were Paleo-Siberian hunters who came to Chukotka from Central and East Asia. The area

4644-456: The ice has been quoted at 50%. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a continuous decline in sea ice extent. In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979–2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%. Human habitation in

4730-497: The increasing influence of Atlantic water heat in melting sea ice in the eastern Arctic. The most recent estimates, for 2016–2018, indicate the oceanic heat flux to the surface has now overtaken the atmospheric flux in the eastern Eurasian Basin. Over the same period the weakening halocline stratification has coincided with increasing upper ocean currents thought to be associated with declining sea ice, indicate increasing mixing in this region. In contrast direct measurements of mixing in

4816-401: The inhabitants during his time as governor from 2000 until 2008. In 2004, there were also reports, however, that Chukotka gave Abramovich's company Sibneft tax breaks in excess of US$ 450 million. On 13 July 2008, the deputies of the Duma of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, during a secret ballot, unanimously approved Roman Kopin as governor, whose candidacy was submitted for consideration to

4902-463: The main event in transport in Chukotka. The main airport is Ugolny Airport near Anadyr . Coastal shipping also takes place, but ice prevents this for at least half the year. The legislative (representative) body of state power is the Duma of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug . It consists of 15 deputies elected for a term of 5 years. As of 2016, it is represented by three factions: United Russia , LDPR , and CPRF . The current governor of Chukotka

4988-740: The main ones being the Kyttyk Peninsula , Cape Shelagsky , the Aachim Peninsula , the Chukchi Peninsula and Russkaya Koshka . There are also several islands belonging to Chukotka, from west to east the main ones being Ayon Island , Ryyanranot Island, Chengkuul Island, Mosey Island, the Routan Islands , Shalaurov Island , Wrangel Island , Herald Island , Kosa Dvukh Pilotov Island , Karkarpko Island , Kolyuchin Island , Serykh Gusey Islands , Idlidlya Island , Big Diomede Island , Ilir Island , Arakamchechen Island , Yttygran Island , Merokinkan Island, Achinkinkan Island and Kosa Meechkyn Island. Large parts of Chukotka are covered with moss, lichen, and arctic plants, similar to western Alaska. Surrounding

5074-416: The more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in. This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an " Open Polar Sea " was persistent. John Barrow , longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty , promoted exploration of

5160-448: The north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called " Eschate Thule ", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as " growlers " or "bergy bits"; his "Thule"

5246-400: The north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus , and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika . Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes . In World War II ,

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5332-437: The northern parts of Khabarovsk Krai in 1953, Chukotka was administratively subordinated to the region. In 1991, Chukotka declared its separation to become a subject of the Russian Federation in its own right, a move that was confirmed by the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation in 1993. From 2001 to 2008, Roman Abramovich was the Governor of Chukotka. He invested billions of rubles , including his own money, into

5418-492: The okrug as of 2021. Indigenous peoples make up 37% of the total population. Arctic Ocean Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five oceanic divisions . It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km (5,430,000 sq mi) and is the coldest of the world's oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it

5504-471: The pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the Baychimo drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards). The Arctic Ocean

5590-414: The region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea (1883). Nevertheless, as all

5676-569: The region include Chukotka Mining and Geological Company ( Kinross Gold ), Severnoye zoloto, Mayskoye Gold Mining Company ( Polymetal ), FSUE Chukotsnab. In April 2022, Kinross announced that it was selling 100% of its Russian assets following other international companies obliged to exit the Russian economy. Chukotka is mostly roadless and air travel is the main mode of passenger transport. There are local permanent roads between some settlements (e.g. Egvekinot - Iultin (200 km (124 mi))). When cold enough, winter roads are constructed on

5762-420: The region would continue. In the period 2000–2006 the average salaries in Chukotka increased from about US$ 165 (€117/£100) per month in 2000 to US$ 826 (€588/£500) per month in 2006. On 11 July 2008, Dmitry Medvedev nominated Roman Kopin to be the governor. On 13 July, the local legislators unanimously confirmed Kopin as the next governor of Chukotka. As of 2023, Vladislav Kuznetsov is the current governor of

5848-520: The rest. It remains relatively stable because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian rivers ( Ob , Yenisei , Lena , Mackenzie ), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-called halocline , in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Because of its relative isolation from other oceans,

5934-478: The role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin, it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre . Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers. The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found in the depth range of 150–200 m (490–660 ft). The most important feature of this water mass

6020-462: The sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline. This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms, and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to

6106-408: The shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea . During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in

6192-411: The size of Antarctica . The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long. It is the only ocean smaller than Russia , which has a land area of 16,377,742 km (6,323,482 sq mi). The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia (Russia and Norway), North America ( Canada and the U.S. state of Alaska), Greenland, and Iceland . Note: Some parts of the areas listed in

6278-470: The summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation . Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85% per decade since 1980 from

6364-644: The summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low , which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to centre over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during

6450-556: The table are located in the Atlantic Ocean . Other consists of Gulfs , Straits , Channels and other parts without specific names and excludes Exclusive Economic Zones . The Arctic Ocean is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea . (The Iceland Sea is sometimes considered part of the Greenland Sea, and sometimes separate.) The largest seas in

6536-571: The trade routes to the Urals, Siberia, and Central Asia opened for travel and traders and Cossacks moved eastwards. The Cossacks built forts in strategic locations and subjected the indigenous people to the Tsar. During the first half of the 17th century, Russians reached the far north-east. In 1641, the first reference to Chukchi people was made by the Cossacks. In 1649, Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnyov explored

6622-470: The upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter, the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent . There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers

6708-477: The war, geologists discovered large reserves of gold that would be mined in the 1950s. The Chukotka National Okrug (later Autonomous Okrug) was created in 1930 and was originally subordinated to Far Eastern Krai . In 1932, Kamchatka Oblast was created within the Far Eastern Krai (later Khabarovsk Krai ) and was given jurisdiction over Chukotka from 1932 to 1953. Since the formation of Magadan Oblast from

6794-459: The west, Magadan Oblast to the south-west, and Kamchatka Krai to the south, as well as a maritime border on the Bering Strait with the U.S. state of Alaska to the east. Anadyr is the largest town and the capital , and the easternmost settlement to have town status in Russia. It is the closest point from Russia to the United States, measuring at 88.51 kilometres or 55 miles. Chukotka

6880-484: The western Arctic indicate the Atlantic water heat remains isolated at intermediate depths even under the 'perfect storm' conditions of the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 . Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700 m (8,900 ft) deep and 350 km (220 mi) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv. The width of

6966-613: The world; it holds large oil and gas reserves. The Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement . The whole area is subject to international territorial claims . The Chukchi Plateau extends from the Chukchi Sea Shelf. An underwater ridge , the Lomonosov Ridge , divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins :

7052-596: The year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre. During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In

7138-470: Was concluded in 1778 in which the Chukchi were exempted from paying yasak . That same year, British Captain James Cook made an exploration of Cape North (now Cape Schmidt ) and Providence Bay . Anxious that other European powers would occupy the area, Tsaritsa Catherine II ordered the exploration and mapping of the area. Starting in 1785, an expedition led by Joseph Billings and Gavril Sarychev mapped

7224-430: Was granted gold, iron, and graphite mining rights in the entire Chukotka between 1902 and 1912. Wrangel Island in particular was subject to claims by the United States and Canada. In 1916, the Russians officially claimed the uninhabited island. But in 1921, Canadian Vilhjalmur Stefansson made a serious attempt to claim it for Canada by populating it and building a small settlement. Another contingent arrived in 1923 but

7310-645: Was probably Norway , though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested. Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch 's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator 's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller 's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or

7396-556: Was then part of the Beringia land bridge that is thought to have enabled human migration to the Americas. Traditionally, Chukotka was the home of the native Chukchi people , Siberian Yupiks , Koryaks , Chuvans , Evens / Lamuts , Yukaghirs , and Inuit . As of 1930, the population was primarily Chukchi. After the Russians conquered the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates in the 16th century,

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