126-539: Kokori is one of the six suburban 'states' of the Agbon 'kingdom' in LGA Ethiope East , Delta State , Nigeria . The other 'states' are Okpara, Eku, Ovu, Orhoakpor, and Igun. Its land area is 196 square kilometres and is blessed with a period of downpour which lasts seven months (from March to October) and a relative five months of little or no rain (from October to February). It has twenty nine streets and roads; and it
252-599: A Shell pipeline due to corrosion and operational failure was reported to have leaked 580,000 barrels of oil. The resulting impacts were air, water, and soil pollution in the area of the spill. In 2006, a team of experts in environmental assessments from Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States were independently organized to conduct a Natural Resource Damage Assessment in the Niger Delta. They concluded that over
378-514: A belief summed up in a housing poster of the period "you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes" – referring to military fitness classifications of the period. The committee's report of 1917 was taken up by the government, which passed the Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919 , also known as the Addison Act after Christopher Addison , the then Minister for Housing. The Act allowed for
504-500: A circumstance beyond its control happened. While it struggled with repairing the pipeline, Royal Dutch Shell announced a force majeure on Nigerian crude oil exports. Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) is the largest fossil fuel company in Nigeria, which operates over 6,000 kilometres (3,700 mi) of pipelines and flowlines, 87 flowstations, 8 natural gas plants and more than 1,000 producing wells. SPDC's role in
630-517: A city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. Although a majority of Americans regard themselves as residents of suburban communities, the federal government of the United States has no formal definition for what constitutes a suburb in the United States, leaving its precise meaning disputed. In Canada, the term may also be used in the British sense, especially as cities annex formerly outlying areas. In
756-546: A city's expansion, such as Ealing , Bromley , and Guiseley . In Ireland, this can be seen in the Dublin suburban areas of Swords, Blanchardstown , and Tallaght . The history of suburbia is part of the study of urban history , which focuses on the origins, growth, diverse typologies, culture, and politics of suburbs, as well as on the gendered and family-oriented nature of suburban space. Many people have assumed that early-20th-century suburbs were enclaves for middle-class whites,
882-519: A compensation of 55 million pounds. Shell and Italy's Eni will stand trial in Italy over allegations of corruption in the 2011 purchase of a big offshore oil field in Nigeria known as OPL 245. Shell and Eni reportedly paid $ 1.3 billion in bribes. According to Barnaby Pace of campaign group Global Witness , "This trial should be a wake-up call to the oil industry. Some of the most senior executives at two of
1008-507: A complaint against the company in the OECD . Under Nigerian law, Shell has no liability when spills are classified as result of sabotage. Soon after, Shell representatives were heard by the Dutch Parliament and Shell revised its estimates from 98% to 70%. It was the second time the company did such a large revision to its oil spill statistics. A Dutch court ruled in 2013 that Shell is liable for
1134-404: A component of these newly designed suburbs which were booming in population. The television helped contribute to the rise of shopping centers by allowing for additional advertisement through the medium in addition to creating a desire among consumers to buy products that are shown being used in suburban life on various television programs. Another factor that led to the rise of these shopping centers
1260-475: A concept that carries tremendous cultural influence yet is actually stereotypical. Some suburbs are based on a society of working-class and minority residents, many of whom want to own their own house. Meanwhile, other suburbs instituted "explicitly racist" policies to deter people deemed as "other", a practice most common in the United States in contrast to other countries around the world. Mary Corbin Sies argues that it
1386-524: A consequence of Shell's activities in the Niger Delta . In particular, Amnesty criticised the continuation of gas flaring and Shell's slow response to oil spills. In 1998, in its first public report on community and environmental issues in Nigeria, Shell promised "to end the practice of gas flaring in ten years, while pledging to establish a youth training scheme in Ogoniland ". Shell Oil has maintained that
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#17328727638621512-559: A further distance from them. In Japan, the construction of suburbs has boomed since the end of World War II and many cities are experiencing the urban sprawl effect. In Mexico, suburbs are generally similar to their United States counterparts. Houses are made in many different architectural styles which may be of European, American and International architecture and which vary in size. Suburbs can be found in Guadalajara , Mexico City, Monterrey , and most major cities. Lomas de Chapultepec
1638-522: A guarantor of the funds payable to the Ejama-Ebubu community. The Bank agreed to become Shell's guarantor and volunteered to "guarantee to pay to the respondents [the community] the judgment sums only if the aforesaid appeal to the Court of Appeal fails and the appellants [SPDC] become liable in law to pay the judgment sums therein." In 2013, the Ejama-Ebubu community filed an objection to Shell's appeal because
1764-1006: A high of nearly two-thirds of Calgary CMA residents (67%), to a low of about one-third of Montréal CMA residents (34%). Large cities in Canada acquired streetcar suburbs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modern Canadian suburbs tend to be less automobile-centric than those in the United States, and public transit use is encouraged but can be notably unused. Throughout Canada, there are comprehensive plans in place to curb sprawl. Population and income growth in Canadian suburbs had tended to outpace growth in core urban or rural areas, but in many areas, this trend has now reversed. The suburban population increased by 87% between 1981 and 2001, well ahead of urban growth. The majority of recent population growth in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas ( Greater Toronto , Greater Montréal, and Greater Vancouver ) has occurred in non-core municipalities. This trend
1890-539: A large city. Suburbs can have their own political or legal jurisdictions, especially in the United States, but this is not always the case, especially in the United Kingdom, where most suburbs are located within the administrative boundaries of cities. In most English-speaking countries , suburban areas are defined in contrast to central city or inner city areas, but in Australian English and South African English , suburb has become largely synonymous with what
2016-588: A large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries, as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. In general, they are less densely populated than inner city neighborhoods within the same metropolitan area, and most residents routinely commute to city centers or business districts via private vehicles or public transits ; however, there are many exceptions, including industrial suburbs , planned communities , and satellite cities . Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land. The English word
2142-471: A large stand–alone house. In the suburbs, where stand–alone houses are the rule, lots may be 85 feet (26 m) wide by 115 feet (35 m) deep, as in the Chicago suburb of Naperville . Manufacturing and commercial buildings were segregated in other areas of the city. Alongside suburbanization, many companies began locating their offices and other facilities in the outer areas of the cities, which resulted in
2268-460: A lawsuit against Shell to try to end gas flaring. Gbemre and the community argued that the extraction of oil and the technique of gas flaring results in a polluted environment and unhealthy living space. One activist in the region stated, "My community, Iwhrekan, is one out of the many of such host communities that have suffered from decades of gas flaring by IOCs [ International Oil Company ]. The million tons of carbon dioxide and methane released into
2394-550: A meeting point for those who lived within suburban America at this time. These centers thrived offering goods and services to the growing populations in suburban America. In 1957, 940 shopping centers were built and this number more than doubled by 1960 to keep up with the demand of these densely populated areas. Very little housing had been built during the Great Depression and World War II , except for emergency quarters near war industries. Overcrowded and inadequate apartments
2520-435: A modern home in beautiful countryside with a fast railway-service to central London. By 1915 people from across London had flocked to live the new suburban dream in large newly built areas across north-west London. Suburbanization in the interwar period was heavily influenced by the garden city movement of Ebenezer Howard and the creation of the first garden suburbs at the turn of the 20th century. The first garden suburb
2646-507: A phenomenon known as white flight . After World War II, the availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs. In the older cities of the northeast U.S., streetcar suburbs originally developed along train or trolley lines that could shuttle workers into and out of city centers where the jobs were located. This practice gave rise to the term " bedroom community ", meaning that most daytime business activity took place in
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#17328727638622772-435: A problem of public order (keeping the unwelcome poorest classes together with the criminals, in this way better controlled, comfortably remote from the elegant "official" town). On the other hand, the expected huge expansion of the town soon effectively covered the distance from the central town, and now those suburbs are completely engulfed by the main territory of the town. Other newer suburbs (called exurbs ) were created at
2898-412: A process known as gas flaring. Many subsistence farm lands are located near the gas flaring station, and local community members have argued that the flaring activities contribute to environmental and health problems. In 2005, an Iwherekhan community member filed a lawsuit against SPDC in an attempt to shut down the gas flaring facility. In July 2005, Jonah Gbemre, an Iwherekhan community member, filed
3024-469: A result of the quality of the equipment being used to extract and transport the oil. These spills are referred to as 'operational spills' and can be caused by corrosion, a lack of regular maintenance of the equipment, and overall underinvestment in the equipment being used. 18.7% of the spills reported by Shell since 2011 are labeled to be 'operational spills'. Oil spills can also occur as a result of natural hazards causing damage to pipelines. In 1970, there
3150-473: A settled life moved in masses to the suburbs. Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing. Due to the influx of people in these suburban areas, the amount of shopping centers began to increase as suburban America took shape. These malls helped supply goods and services to the growing urban population. Shopping for different goods and services in one central location without having to travel to multiple locations, helped to keep shopping centers
3276-439: A spill within twenty-four hours of the spill, then conduct a JIV report within the next twenty-four hours following. In addition, the repair and clean-up of the spill is also required to begin within the first twenty-four hours of when the spill was discovered. Shell's response time has been reported to rarely be within these regulations. In only 25.7% of the spills that have occurred since 2011, Shell has conducted JIV reports within
3402-594: A suspicious payment to “restore order” in Ogoniland, a mere ten days after the shooting of unarmed protestors outside Shell's regional headquarters in Port Harcourt. Shell's oil extraction activities have been challenged in Court by various Nigerian communities. These communities sought to use the state and its judicial instruments to demand justice from the Shell corporation. Many communities have reported being disappointed by
3528-573: A total price of $ 10,000. Veterans could get one with a much lower down payment. At the same time, African Americans were rapidly moving north and west for better jobs and educational opportunities than were available to them in the segregated South. Their arrival in Northern and Western cities en masse, in addition to being followed by race riots in several large cities such as Philadelphia , Los Angeles , Detroit , Chicago , and Washington, D.C. , further stimulated white suburban migration. The growth of
3654-601: Is a distinct European style originating from European influence during the mid-1600s when the Dutch settled the Cape. Houses like these are called Cape Dutch Houses and can be found in the affluent suburbs of Constantia and Bishopscourt . Large cities like Sydney and Melbourne had streetcar suburbs in the tram era. With the automobile, the Australian usage came about as outer areas were quickly surrounded in fast-growing cities, but retained
3780-545: Is also beginning to take effect in Vancouver , and to a lesser extent, Montréal . In certain cities, particularly Edmonton and Calgary , suburban growth takes place within the city boundaries as opposed to in bedroom communities. This is due to annexation and a large geographic footprint within the city borders. Calgary is unusual among Canadian cities because it has developed as a unicity – it has annexed most of its surrounding towns and large amounts of undeveloped land around
3906-954: Is an example of an affluent suburb, although it is located inside the city and by no means is today a suburb in the strict sense of the word. In other countries, the situation is similar to that of Mexico, with many suburbs being built, most notably in Peru and Chile, which have experienced a boom in the construction of suburbs since the late 1970s and early 1980s. As the growth of middle-class and upper-class suburbs increased, low-class squatter areas have increased, most notably "lost cities" in Mexico, campamentos in Chile, barriadas in Peru, villa miserias in Argentina, asentamientos in Guatemala and favelas of Brazil. Shell Petroleum Development Company Shell Nigeria
Kokori - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-441: Is an urbanized nation where over 80% of the population lives in urban areas (loosely defined), and roughly two-thirds live in one of Canada's 33 census metropolitan areas (CMAs) with a population of over 100,000. However, of this metropolitan population, in 2001 nearly half lived in low-density neighborhoods, with only one in five living in a typical "urban" neighborhood. The percentage living in low-density neighborhoods varied from
4158-455: Is called a " neighborhood " in the U.S. Due in part to historical trends such as white flight , some suburbs in the United States have a higher population and higher incomes than their nearby inner cities. In some countries, including India, China, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and parts of the United States, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities due to urban sprawl . In others, such as Morocco , France, and much of
4284-801: Is derived from the Old French subburbe , which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium , formed from sub (meaning "under" or "below") and urbs ("city"). The first recorded use of the term in English according to the Oxford English Dictionary appears in Middle English c. 1350 in the manuscript of the Midlands Prose Psalter, in which the form suburbes is used. In Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, suburban areas (in
4410-407: Is necessary to examine how "suburb" is defined as well as the distinction made between cities and suburbs, geography, economic circumstances, and the interaction of numerous factors that move research beyond acceptance of stereotyping and its influence on scholarly assumptions. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements. Large walled towns tended to be
4536-419: Is responsible for the spill. Although the cause for the spill is disputed, it is agreed that roughly two million barrels of crude oil was spilled, affecting 631 acres, or 255 hectares, of surrounding land. Additionally, it is known that the spilt oil caught fire and burned for weeks. Chief Isaac Osaro Agbara, Oneh-eh Eta Ejaman XI, Emere Nkunna I of Eleme explained the fire by stating, "One early morning, there
4662-555: Is surrounded by thirty village communities, including Samagidi a rapidly developing township. Network of streams and creeks cuts across different parts of Kokori territory. Three major streams are identifiable: the Omwe stream on Eku road, Iranzo stream on Orogun road and Erhanaka stream on Kokori – Ofuoma road. It is a hinterland bounded by Eku and Igun on the north ; by Ugono, Orhomaru, Erhobaro, Ovara and Idionvwan villages all in Orogun, on
4788-467: Is the common name for Shell plc 's Nigerian operations carried out through four subsidiaries—primarily Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited (SPDC). Royal Dutch Shell's joint ventures account for more than 21% of Nigeria 's total petroleum production (629,000 barrels per day (100,000 m /d) (bpd) in 2009). The company has been controversial in communities in the Niger Delta, who point to its poor environmental record and that most of
4914-672: The Decalogue of ancient Israel , it was able to mould Kokori society into one worthy of stay. The Igbe religion spread to many destinations beyond Kokori and the Urhobo nation at large. In fact, based on its monotheistic vocation and puritan practices, it gained international platform – a congregation was established in London for the adherents in that destination. As regards her festivals, three festivals rear their terrific heads – Egba, Orerode and Ibi festivals respectively. The Egba festival celebrates
5040-572: The FNB ("Soccer City") Stadium and south of the city in areas like Eikenhof, where the "Eye of Africa" planned community exists. This master-planned community is nearly indistinguishable from the most amenity-rich resort-style American suburbs in Florida, Arizona, and California, complete with a golf course, resort pool, equestrian facility , 24-hour staffed gates, gym, and BMX track, as well as several tennis, basketball, and volleyball courts. In Cape Town, there
5166-648: The Hampstead Garden Suburb . The suburb attracted the talents of architects including Raymond Unwin and Sir Edwin Lutyens , and it ultimately grew to encompass over 800 acres. During World War I, the Tudor Walters Committee was commissioned to make recommendations for the post war reconstruction and housebuilding. In part, this was a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during World War One, attributed to poor living conditions;
Kokori - Misplaced Pages Continue
5292-511: The Ogoni tribe of southern Nigeria, who were hanged in 1995 by Nigeria's then military rulers. The lawsuits were brought against Royal Dutch Shell and Brian Anderson, the head of its Nigerian operation. In 2009, Shell agreed to pay $ 15.5m in a legal settlement. Shell has not accepted any liability over the allegations against it. Shell has also been accused of complicity in the deaths of villagers in 1990. During peaceful protests at Umuechem village,
5418-513: The east ; on the west by Isiokolo and Okpara Inland in Agbon 'sub-nation'; and by Awirhe in Agbara and Odovie in Ughelli on the south . The entire Kokori land is flat and situated in the evergreen tropical forest zone which is dominated by the oil palm tree. Kokori's original name was 'Ukori' and her people were called 'Uhwokori', an abbreviation of 'Ihwo-ru-Ukori'. The Uhwerun people changed
5544-403: The inner cities of the U.S. Examples include the banlieues of France, or the concrete suburbs of Sweden, even if the suburbs of these countries also include middle-class and upper-class neighborhoods that often consist of single-family houses . Following the growth of the middle class due to African industrialization, the development of middle class suburbs has boomed since the beginning of
5670-485: The 1850s and eventually became a component of the Australian Dream . Toward the end of the century, with the development of public transit systems such as the underground railways , trams and buses, it became possible for the majority of a city's population to reside outside the city and to commute into the center for work. By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as
5796-603: The 1930s through 1945, there were 1,450,000 constructed annually from 1946 through 1955. The G.I. Bill guaranteed low-cost loans for veterans, with very low down payments, and low interest rates. With 16 million eligible veterans, the opportunity to buy a house was suddenly at hand. In 1947 alone, 540,000 veterans bought one; their average price was $ 7300. The construction industry kept prices low by standardization—for example, standardizing sizes for kitchen cabinets, refrigerators and stoves allowed for mass production of kitchen furnishings. Developers purchased empty land just outside
5922-434: The 1990s, particularly in cities such as Cairo , Nairobi , Johannesburg , and Lagos . In an illustrative case of South Africa, RDP housing has been built. In much of Soweto , many houses are American in appearance, but are smaller, and often consist of a kitchen and living room, two or three bedrooms, and a bathroom. However, there are more affluent neighborhoods, more comparable to American suburbs, particularly east of
6048-417: The Court of Appeals must hear the case. The following year, in 2017, the Court of Appeals at Port Harcourt ruled that SPDC needed to pay the Ejama-Ebubu community the damages plus interest. Accounting for the interest since the 2010 judgement of N15.4 billion, the oil company was now required to pay N122 billion. Since First Bank Plc's had accepted the responsibility as guarantor of payment if the appeal failed,
6174-670: The Egba fetish; the Orerode festival celebrates the ancestors of the Kokori people while the Ibi festival commemorates the gun fires that were fired against the invaders who threatened their sovereignty. The Egba and Orerode festivals are celebrated annually while the Ibi festival is celebrated once in a century. Kokori people speak one tongue- urhobo . Kokori does not frown at intra-marriage and neither does it not smile at inter-marriage which enhances integration. In
6300-540: The Ejama-Ebubu community to file a lawsuit against SPDC in 2001. Thirty years after the spill, in 2001, the Ejama-Ebubu community filed a lawsuit against Shell at the Federal High Court in Port Harcourt . The community asked the Court to require that Shell provide remedies in three ways. First, the Ejama-Ebubu community sought N5.4 billion in special damages . These special damages include direct value lost due to
6426-575: The Grand Central Terminal commuter hub that enabled its development. Westchester's true importance in the history of American suburbanization derives from the upper-middle class development of villages including Scarsdale , New Rochelle and Rye serving thousands of businessmen and executives from Manhattan. The suburban population in North America exploded during the post-World War II economic expansion . Returning veterans wishing to start
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#17328727638626552-585: The Ogale region of Nigeria against Shell in the High Court of London. More than 2,000 people have joined the suits with local churches and schools joining the case to force the company to clean up the environmental destruction caused by oil spills. The suit comes as Shell declared that it made over $ 30bn in profit from the first three quarters of 2022. Shell says that the spills in questions occurred more than five years ago and were often caused by organized gangs, who caused
6678-469: The Shell Nigeria family is typically confined to the physical production and extraction of petroleum . It is an operator of the joint venture, which composed of Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (55%), Shell (30%), TotalEnergies (10%) and Eni (5%). In the 1990s, tensions arose between the native Ogoni people of the Niger Delta and Shell. The concerns of the locals were that very little of
6804-476: The U.S., the development of the skyscraper and the sharp inflation of downtown real estate prices also led to downtowns being more fully dedicated to businesses, thus pushing residents outside the city center. While suburbs are often associated with the middle classes, in many parts of the developed world, suburbs can be economically distressed areas, inhabited by higher proportions of recent immigrants, with higher delinquency rates and social problems, reminiscent of
6930-440: The United Kingdom and Ireland, the term suburb simply refers to a residential area outside the city center, regardless of administrative boundaries. Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city center. In large cities such as London and Leeds, many suburbs are formerly separate towns and villages that have been absorbed during
7056-468: The United States, many suburbs remain separate municipalities or are governed locally as part of a larger metropolitan area such as a county, district or borough . In the United States, regions beyond the suburbs are known as "exurban areas" or exurbs ; exurbs have less population density than suburbs, but still more than rural areas. Suburbs and exurbs are sometimes linked to the nearby city economically, particularly by commuters. Suburbs first emerged on
7182-465: The amount of oil spilled during each incident can also be attributed to the high volatility of oil resulting in the evaporation of about 50% of the exposed oil within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of the initial spill. Amnesty International and Friends of the Earth International contested Shell's claims that up to 98% of all oil spills in Nigeria were due to sabotage. The two groups filed
7308-781: The appellation suburb ; the term was eventually applied to neighborhoods in the original core as well. In Australia, Sydney's urban sprawl has occurred predominantly in the Western Suburbs . The locality of Olympic Park was designated an official suburb in 2009. Bangladesh has multiple suburbs, Uttara & Ashulia to name a few. However, most suburbs in Dhaka are different from the ones in Europe & Americas . Most suburbs in Bangladesh are filled with high-rise buildings, paddy fields, and farms, and are designed more like rural villages. Canada
7434-476: The atmosphere every year, as a result of gas flaring, have obviously polluted the air we breathe in this part of the world." On 14 November 2005, the Federal High Court in Nigeria ruled in favor of the Iwherekhan community and declared that gas flaring was illegal. Furthermore, the court determined that gas flaring constituted a violation of the Iwherekhan community members' right to life and dignity. SPDC appealed
7560-455: The bank was then liable to pay N122 billion to the Ejama-Ebubu community. However, as of January 2019, Shell sought to continue the appeals process, and many people expect a continuation of the complex legal proceedings. According to Shell, it is common that when oil is brought to the Earth's surface, gas is produced as well. This gas is seen as an unwanted by-product and consequently, burned off in
7686-431: The biggest companies in the world could face prison sentences for a deal that was struck under their watch." In March 2018, Shell filed a criminal complaint against Peter Robinson, a former vice president for sub-Saharan Africa . Shell said the two cases were unrelated. In 2022, both Eni and Shell were acquitted. In 2009, Shell was the subject of an Amnesty International report into the deterioration of human rights as
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#17328727638627812-494: The building of large new housing estates in the suburbs after the First World War , and marked the start of a long 20th century tradition of state-owned housing, which would later evolve into council estates . The Report also legislated on the required, minimum standards necessary for further suburban construction; this included regulation on the maximum housing density and their arrangement, and it even made recommendations on
7938-481: The cause of the spill was changed, by Shell, from "equipment failure" to "sabotage, following the field investigation, has been shared with Shell. Under Nigerian law the operating company is responsible for cleaning up oil spills from its facilities, even if the spill is the result of third-party action. Therefore, the human and environmental impact of Shell's failure to properly clean up pollution cannot be defended by reference to illegal activity that, allegedly, caused
8064-534: The city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst for suburban growth was the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s. The line later joined the capital's financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex . The line reached Harrow in 1880. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, London's Met
8190-466: The city, installed tract houses based on a handful of designs, and provided streets and utilities, while local public officials raced to build schools. The most famous development was Levittown, in Long Island just east of New York City. It offered a new house for $ 1000 down and $ 70 a month; it featured three bedrooms, a fireplace, a gas range and gas furnace, and a landscaped lot of 75 by 100 feet, all for
8316-717: The city, with the working population leaving the city at night for the purpose of going home to sleep. Economic growth in the United States encouraged the suburbanization of American cities that required massive investments for the new infrastructure and homes. Consumer patterns were also shifting at this time, as purchasing power was becoming stronger and more accessible to a wider range of families. Suburban houses also brought about needs for products that were not needed in urban neighborhoods, such as lawnmowers and automobiles. During this time commercial shopping malls were being developed near suburbs to satisfy consumers' needs and their car–dependent lifestyle. Zoning laws also contributed to
8442-571: The city. As a result, most of the communities that Calgarians refer to as "suburbs" are actually inside the city limits. In the 2016 census, the City of Calgary had a population of 1,239,220, whereas the Calgary Metropolitan Area had a population of 1,392,609, indicating the vast majority of people in the Calgary CMA lived within the city limits. The perceived low population density of Calgary largely results from its many internal suburbs and
8568-446: The community asked that Shell de-pollute the affected area and restore the environment to its pre-polluted state. Although the lawsuit was initiated in 2001, a decision was not issued until 5 July 2010 by Justice Ibrahim Buba. The community's counsel, Emmanuel Asido Esq., explained that the case had been heard by two other judges before being presented to Justice Buba, resulting in a significant time delay. Justice Buba ruled in favor of
8694-520: The community, requiring Shell to pay N15.4 billion in damages and restore the Ejama-Ebubu land to its pre-polluted state. Justice Buba also decided that the Ejama-Ebubu community was granted a 25% interest charge on the N15.4 billion. Following this ruling, SPDC appealed the judgement in 2010 and asked that any payment be suspended until after the appeal process. The Court agreed that payment could be postponed, but required that SPDC's bank, First Bank Plc, become
8820-541: The company and the Nigerian military "bribed" by promising money and jobs at the facility. Shell gave money to the military and was blamed for contaminating the Niger Delta with oil. The company denied these claims and implied that MOSOP was an extortionary movement that advocated violence and secession. In December 2003, Shell Nigeria acknowledged that the conflict in the Niger Delta makes it difficult to operate safely and with integrity and that "we sometimes feed conflict by
8946-422: The company had requested the assistance of a paramilitary police unit. According to Amnesty International, the company should have known the risks as there had been many violent incidents involving the Nigerian government in Ogoniland. The police attacked the village with guns and grenades, killing 80 people and burning 595 houses. In 2010, a leaked cable revealed Shell boasting about having inserted staff into all
9072-575: The contemporary era and other parts of Nigeria; few, traditional faith; and, a very few, Islam . Kokori is divided into three administrative quarters- Alaka, Urhuokpokpo and Umiahwa. And the Okarorho is the administrative head of the town, in the absence of the Ovie. He rules by a council (Ehonvwore). The okarorho's spokesman is the otota who also is the spokesman of the town. In 1958, Shell Petroleum Development Company carried out an exploration work which led to
9198-495: The developers were looking for palm oil . In July 2013, Shell Nigeria awarded Kaztec engineering Limited a $ 84.5 million exploration and production contract for the Trans-Niger oil pipeline. On 25 March 2014, Shell Nigeria declared a force majeure on crude oil exports from its Forcados crude oil depot which stopped operations due to a leak in its underwater pipeline, a clause freeing the company from contractual obligations as
9324-403: The discovery of crude oil on Kokori soil. She has over twenty oil wells and second best crude oil in the world by reason of its low sulphur content. In 1994, Kokori generated N68 billion for the federal government of Nigeria. Suburban A suburb (more broadly suburban area ) is an area within a metropolitan area which is predominantly residential and within commuting distance of
9450-663: The economic benefit from oil exploitation has not benefited local communities. In particular, when, in 1993 the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) organized large protests against Shell and the government, it led to repression of the local community. The company has been responsible for some significant oil spills in the Niger delta, and both Nigerian and European courts have held them liable for environmental destruction. One of
9576-455: The era, was heavily influenced by the Art Deco movement, taking influence from Tudor Revival , chalet style , and even ship design. Within just a decade suburbs dramatically increased in size. Harrow Weald went from just 1,500 to over 10,000 while Pinner jumped from 3,000 to over 20,000. During the 1930s, over 4 million new suburban houses were built, the 'suburban revolution' had made England
9702-416: The expectation of the community was too high and disproportionate to Nigerian standards. Finally, in 2015, Shell announced a £55 million settlement agreement. The oil company stated "we have now reached a settlement agreeable to ourselves and the community." The clean up is currently being undertaken by the internationally recognized Bodo Mediation Initiative (BMI). A new suit has been filed by farmers from
9828-700: The first quarter of the twentieth century, Christianity was introduced to Kokori via the arrival of the Roman Catholic Mission in 1905 in Umiahwa quarter of the town; the Anglican Mission at Urhuokpokpo quarter in 1927; and the Baptist Mission at Anaka quarter in 1945. Thus, most of the people practice Christianity ; some the Igbe religion which originated in Kokori in the pre-colonial era and found its way to
9954-554: The first suburban districts sprung up around downtowns to accommodate those who wanted to escape the squalid conditions of the industrial towns. Initially, such growth came along rail lines in the form of ribbon developments , as suburban residents could commute via train to downtown for work. In Australia, where Melbourne would soon become the second-largest city in the British Empire, the distinctively Australasian suburb, with its loosely aggregated quarter-acre sections, developed in
10080-452: The first twenty-hours of a spill being reported. Oftentimes, it has been reported that Shell and other oil companies do not begin to clean up the spills until after the reports are conducted delaying the response time even further. Shell does state that the pipelines are shut off in the event of a spill being reported, however, the oil that has already been spilled is still left in the environment. For example, 252 days passed before Shell visited
10206-507: The focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town . The word suburbani was first employed by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas and estates built by the wealthy patricians of Rome on the city's outskirts. Towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty , until 190 AD, when Dong Zhuo razed the city, the capital Luoyang
10332-495: The ideal number of bedrooms and other rooms per house. Although the semi-detached house was first designed by the Shaws (a father and son architectural partnership) in the 19th century, it was during the suburban housing boom of the interwar period that the design first proliferated as a suburban icon, being preferred by middle-class home owners to the smaller terraced houses . The design of many of these houses, highly characteristic of
10458-420: The incessant invasions and the conspiracy against the Kokori people because of the discord which bedevilled the four Agbon families- Okpara, Ukori, Eku and Orhoakpor- made Isiokolo turbulent and the Agbon families began to migrate to their respective present sites. Kokori is cradle for the Igbe religion which began in 1858; founded by Ubiecha of Egbo Street in Kokori. Although it had no written constitution like
10584-417: The increased density of older suburbs and the growth of lower density suburbs even further from city centers. An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of "new towns" and the protection of green belts around cities. Some social reformers attempted to combine the best of both concepts in the garden city movement. In the U.S., 1950 was the first year that more people lived in suburbs than elsewhere. In
10710-463: The issues of pollution of the Niger Delta is brought about by illegal refining of crude oil, sabotage and theft of oil field infrastructure. Research by Amnesty International, CEHRD and Friends of the Earth provide examples of cases where Shell claimed the cause of a spill was sabotage, but this claim was subsequently called into question by other investigations or the courts. This evidence, which includes video footage of an oil spill investigation where
10836-771: The large amount of undeveloped land within the city. The city actually has a policy of densifying its new developments. In China, the term suburb is new, although suburbs are already being constructed rapidly. Chinese suburbs mostly consist of rows upon rows of apartment blocks and condos that end abruptly into the countryside. Also new town developments are extremely common. Single family suburban homes tend to be similar to their Western equivalents; although primarily outside Beijing and Shanghai, also mimic Spanish and Italian architecture. In Hong Kong, however, suburbs are mostly government-planned new towns containing numerous public housing estates. However, other new towns also contain private housing estates and low density developments for
10962-485: The legal process due to lengthy delays and the Court's perceived favoritism for the oil company. In 1970, an oil spill occurred at one of Shell's oil extraction facilities located in the Ejama-Ebubu community. The exact cause for the oil spill is disputed with some claiming that the spill was caused by a bomb exploding during the Nigeria-Biafra civil war. Others reject this claim, and instead believe Shell's equipment
11088-424: The location of residential areas outside of the city center by creating wide areas or "zones" where only residential buildings were permitted. These suburban residences are built on larger lots of land than in the central city. For example, the lot size for a residence in Chicago is usually 125 feet (38 m) deep, while the width can vary from 14 feet (4.3 m) wide for a row house to 45 feet (14 m) wide for
11214-713: The lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term 'middle suburbs' is also used. Inner suburbs , such as Te Aro in Wellington, Eden Terrace in Auckland, Prahran in Melbourne and Ultimo in Sydney, are usually characterized by higher density apartment housing and greater integration between commercial and residential areas. In the United States and Canada , suburb can refer either to an outlying residential area of
11340-415: The main ministries of the Nigerian government and knowing everything that was being done in those ministries. Court documents released in 2009 have revealed that in the 1990s, Shell routinely worked with Nigeria's military and mobile police to subdue resistance to its oil activities, often concerning Ogoniland activists, in the delta region. Shell also provided logistic support during the crackdown, and made
11466-613: The militarization of the Delta. By this time, local and state officials had offered financial support to those paramilitary groups they believed would attempt to enforce their own political agenda. Conflagrations have been concentrated primarily in Delta and Rivers States . Shell maintained that it asked the Nigerian government for clemency towards those found guilty but its request was declined. A 2001 Greenpeace report mentioned two witnesses for whom
11592-522: The money earned from oil on their land was getting to the people who live there, and the environmental damages caused by the recurring sabotage of pipelines operated by Shell. In 1993 the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) organized large protests against Shell and the government, often occupying the company production facilities. Shell withdrew its operations from the Ogoni areas. The Nigerian government raided their villages and arrested some of
11718-512: The most heavily suburbanized country in the world, by a considerable margin. Boston and New York City spawned the first major suburbs. The streetcar lines in Boston and the rail lines in Manhattan made daily commutes possible. No metropolitan area in the world was as well served by railroad commuter lines at the turn of the twentieth century as New York, and it was the rail lines to Westchester from
11844-527: The most significant cases was at one of Shell's oil extraction facilities located in the Ejama-Ebubu community. Shell started business in Nigeria in 1938 as "Shell D'Arcy" and was granted an exploration license. In 1956, Shell Nigeria discovered the first commercial oil field at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta and started oil exports in 1958. Prior to the discovery of oil, Nigeria like many other African countries strongly relied on agricultural exports to other countries to support its economy. Many Nigerians thought
11970-425: The name to 'Tokori' when Agbon people led by Ukori, their ancestral father, migrated to stay on their land. British colonial administrators further changed the name to Kokori which she now bears. Five waves of migration birthed Kokori. First, from Benin to Asseh. Second, from Asseh to Irri. Third, from Irri to Uhwerun. A fourth migration graced the face of Urhobo history when they migrated to Isiokolo. In 1606 A.D,
12096-549: The oil company had not paid the correct filing fees. The Court upheld the community's objection and rejected SPDC's appeal. In response to this objection, SPDC appealed to the Supreme Court of Nigeria . In 2016, the Supreme Court of Nigeria overturned the Court of Appeal's decision to reject the appeal. Justice Ibrahim Muhammad of the Supreme Court decided that Shell was allowed to appeal the initial 2010 judgement and ruled that
12222-421: The oil spill, such as the cost of renewable crops, loss of income, health problems, and desecration of shrines. Second, the community sought N10 billion in general damages caused by the oil spill. These general damages were claimed due to general inconveniences caused by the oil spill such as polluted underground water, acid rain, and other difficulties faced by the community, like deprivation of education. Lastly,
12348-401: The oil spills. In the beginning of 1996, several human rights groups brought cases to hold Shell accountable for alleged human rights violations in Nigeria , including summary execution , crimes against humanity, torture, inhumane treatment and arbitrary arrest and detention . In particular, Shell stood accused of collaborating in the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other leaders of
12474-482: The outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest. Due to the rapid migration of the rural poor to the industrializing cities of England in the late 18th century, a trend in the opposite direction began to develop, whereby newly rich members of the middle classes began to purchase estates and villas on the outskirts of London. This trend accelerated through the 19th century, especially in cities like London and Birmingham that were growing rapidly, and
12600-510: The past fifty years, an estimated nine million to thirteen million barrels of oil had been spilled in the Niger Delta. Shell is responsible for around fifty percent of the oil production in Niger Delta. Between 1998 and 2009, Shell oil was responsible for 491, 627 barrels of oil spilled, averaging about 41,000 barrels per year. In 2011, Shell started publishing the reports it has been required to take every time an oil spill occurs. These reports, titled 'Joint Investigation Visit' or JIV, record when
12726-576: The pollution in the Niger Delta. Shell faced their oil spill response practices in November 2014 during legal action that was taken in the United Kingdom. The spill that was contested was from the Trans-Niger Pipeline in 2008 where 1640 barrels of oil were reported by Shell and a second spill in 2009 where Shell reported 4000 barrels of oil were spilled. In court, the assessment was proven to be extremely under-estimated and Shell ended up committing to
12852-533: The protest leaders. Some of these arrested protesters, Ken Saro-Wiwa being the most prominent, were later executed, against widespread international opposition from the Commonwealth of Nations and human rights organisations. The ethnic unrest and conflicts of the late 1990s (such as those between the Ijaw, Urhobo and Itsekiri), coupled with a peak in the availability of small arms and other weapons, led increasingly to
12978-408: The purposes of capturing oil and transporting it illegally out of Nigeria for monetary gain. This process, known as "oil bunkering", is estimated to cost Nigeria as much as 400,000 barrels of crude oil per day. Typically, when the oil theft operation is finished, the pipeline is left open, which results in an oil spill. In addition to the spills caused by 'oil bunkering', oils spills can also occur as
13104-523: The railway. However, World War I (1914–1918) delayed these plans until 1919, when, with the expectation of a postwar housing-boom, Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Limited (MRCE) formed. MRCE went on to develop estates at Kingsbury Garden Village near Neasden , Wembley Park , Cecil Park and Grange Estate at Pinner and the Cedars Estate at Rickmansworth and to found places such as Harrow Garden Village . The Met's marketing department coined
13230-429: The region. The spilt oil is also said to have negative health consequences for members of the community, such as, causing respiratory problems because toxic gases are released. According to community members, SPDC had promised to clean up the affected land, but oil pollution remained. The long-lasting environmental impacts, the health consequences of the oil spill, and the unfulfilled promises to take action ultimately led
13356-412: The ruling, and despite the court's order to stop gas flaring activities, it was reported that Shell continued to operate the gas flaring station in the Iwherekhan community. In response to SPDC's continued activities, on 16 December 2005, Gbemre and the Iwherekhan community filed contempt of court documents. However, SPDC argued that it was not in contempt of court since the oil company was still appealing
13482-523: The ruling. In April 2006, the Nigerian Supreme Court ordered that the oil company end all flaring by April 2007. However, as of 2015, gas flaring in the Iwherekhan community has continued, even though Shell announced that between 2002 and 2015 the volume of gas burned through gas flaring in Nigeria had been reduced by 85%. In 2008, two oil spills occurred in the Bodo community. An investigation team
13608-587: The site of an oil spill that was reported in February 2016. Another case in May, 2015 took Shell 190 days to visit after a report had been made. Both spills were reportedly in areas that were easily accessible providing limited excuse for the companies delayed responses. On average, Shell took around 9.68 days to respond and conduct JIV reports for spills that occurred in water and around 5.35 days to respond and conduct JIV reports for spills that occurred on land. Underreporting on
13734-411: The spill began, where the spill took place, the cause of the spill, and the estimated amount of oil lost. JIV reports are important to not only keep track of the oil spills, but also to determine whether or not the surrounding communities will be able to receive forms of compensation for any damage on their homes, fisheries, or fields resulting from the oil spilled. Communities receive compensation only if
13860-718: The spill is not caused by sabotage or third party interference. This practice is based on Nigeria's 1990 Oil Pipelines Act that requires the company to compensate any person that is suffering from the damages of an oil spill, unless caused by a third party. The data from these reports have been published online since 2015 by the National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA). Since 2011, 1,010 oil spills with an overall sum of 110,535 barrels, or 17.5 million liters, of oil have been reported as lost by Shell. Oil Spill reporting practices and response Nigerian government regulations legally require companies to report
13986-462: The start of a trial in New York that was expected to reveal extensive details of Shell's and MOSOP's activities in the Niger Delta. The heavy contamination of the air, ground and water with toxic pollutants from oil spills in the Niger Delta is often used as an example of ecocide . Individuals from villages surrounding oil production facilities occasionally drill holes into Shell Oil pipelines for
14112-579: The suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and numerous innovations in transport. Redlining and other discriminatory measures built into federal housing policy furthered the racial segregation of postwar America–for example, by refusing to insure mortgages in and near African-American neighborhoods. The government's efforts were primarily designed to provide housing to White middle-class and lower-middle-class families. African Americans and other people of color largely remained concentrated within decaying cores of urban poverty creating
14238-971: The term Metro-land in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide, priced at 1 d . This promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter. Published annually until 1932 (the last full year of independence for the Met), the guide extolled the benefits of "The good air of the Chilterns", using language such as "Each lover of Metroland may well have his own favorite wood beech and coppice — all tremulous green loveliness in Spring and russet and gold in October". The dream as promoted involved
14364-405: The upper classes. In the illustrative case of Rome, Italy, in the 1920s and 1930s, suburbs were intentionally created ex novo to give lower classes a destination, in consideration of the actual and foreseen massive arrival of poor people from other areas of the country. Many critics have seen in this development pattern (which was circularly distributed in every direction) also a quick solution to
14490-526: The way we award contracts, gain access to land, and deal with community representatives", and that it intends to improve on its practices. In 2009, Shell offered to settle the Ken Saro-Wiwa case with US$ 15.5 million while denying any wrongdoings and calling the settlement a humanitarian gesture. According to the New York Times and the journalist Michael D. Goldhaber, the settlement came days before
14616-467: The wider sense noted in the lead paragraph) have become formalized as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities (see suburbs and localities ). The terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density areas in proximity to the city center (which would not be referred to as 'suburbs' in most other countries), and
14742-440: Was a blow-out. Everywhere was dark, but there was fire at the same time. People were running helter-skelter....The fire burnt sand into coal tar. Most of our people had to flee the community to neighbouring towns and villages." In 2011, forty-one years after the spill, researchers have reported still being able to see oil when looking down into deep crevices and have found that eight centimeters of refined oil floats on groundwater in
14868-574: Was allowed to retain such land that it believed was necessary for future railway use. Initially, the surplus land was managed by the Land Committee, and, from the 1880s, the land was developed and sold to domestic buyers in places like Willesden Park Estate, Cecil Park, near Pinner and at Wembley Park. In 1912 it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near
14994-410: Was an oil spill from a Shell pipeline caused primarily by corrosion and operational failure resulting in over 250 barrels of oil spilled. The resulting effects included the pollution of the surrounding air, water, and soil, as well as, a loss of the surrounding ecological and aquatic species. Health problems in the surrounding areas were also cited as an impact of the oil spill. In 1978, another spill from
15120-535: Was crafted. Two oil spills in the Bodo community negatively impacted the region's farmland and fisheries, harming the livelihood of the Bodo community members. SPDC initially responded to the oil spills in 2009 by offering food supplies to affected community members. This offer was rejected by Bodo chiefs, and SPDC then offered twice as much in food supplies. In 2011, members of the Bodo community brought claims against SPDC for environmental pollution. The environment pollution
15246-428: Was developed through the efforts of social reformer Henrietta Barnett and her husband; inspired by Ebenezer Howard and the model housing development movement (then exemplified by Letchworth garden city), as well as the desire to protect part of Hampstead Heath from development, they established trusts in 1904 which bought 243 acres of land along the newly opened Northern line extension to Golders Green and created
15372-515: Was mainly occupied by the emperor and important officials; the city's people mostly lived in small cities right outside Luoyang, which were suburbs in all but name. As populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside . In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the main city expanded. The peripheral areas on
15498-511: Was sent to determine the cause of the oil spill. Upon learning that operational failures of the pipelines caused the oil spills, Shell accepted responsibility. SPDC stated that the spills "were deeply regrettable operational accidents, and as in all cases of operational spills SPDC acknowledged responsibility to pay compensation as required by Nigerian law." The oil company and the community were reportedly "in and out of" negotiations from 2009 to 2015, until finally an agreement suitable to both sides
15624-442: Was significant for the Bodo community because the oil spilled into Bodo Creek, an important water supply for the community members who were mostly subsistence farmers and fishers. Following this lawsuit, Shell and the Bodo community more actively engaged in negotiation efforts, but the process was continuously interrupted by competing interests. The community argued that Shell was not offering enough compensation, while SPDC argued that
15750-410: Was the building of many highways. The Highway Act of 1956 helped to fund the building of 64,000 kilometers across the nation by having 26 billion dollars on hand, which helped to link many more to these shopping centers with ease. These newly built shopping centers, which were often large buildings full of multiple stores, and services, were being used for more than shopping, but as a place of leisure and
15876-496: Was the common condition. Some suburbs had developed around large cities where there was rail transportation to the jobs downtown. However, the real growth in suburbia depended on the availability of automobiles, highways, and inexpensive housing. The population had grown, and the stock of family savings had accumulated the money for down payments, automobiles and appliances. The product was a great housing boom. Whereas an average of 316,000 new non-farm housing units were constructed from
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