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118-398: Kir Ianulea or Kyr Ianulea ( Romanian pronunciation: [kir jaˈnule̯a] ) is a fantasy and historical fiction novella or short story, published by Romanian author Ion Luca Caragiale in 1909. Borrowing the elements of a fairy tale , satire and frame story , it has become recognized as one of Caragiale's leading contributions to short prose, and is often described as one of

236-591: A "symbolic novel". Describing Kir Ianulea and the various other portions of Schițe noi as early samples of metafiction , Cap-Bun noted: "the new filters were so efficient that one can hardly recognize the new grains growing from the sedimentary beds of the source culture to be responses to the primary texts." Machiavelli's original mixes characters in Ancient Greek myths (the presence of Pluto , Minos and Rhadamanthus ) with Jewish and Christian mythology (the heresy of Peor ), making Belphegor's mission relate to

354-678: A 1939 operetta by composer Sabin Drăgoi . The narrative opens with the rally of all devils, as ordered by "the Overlord of Hell" Dardarot. Probably a replica version of Astaroth , the latter confesses being intrigued by the large number of human victims who claim to have sinned only because of women, and indicates that he considers a method for verifying the truth in this claim. Dardarot decides to send "the little one", Aghiuță ("Hell's Bells" or "Dickens"), into an extended investigation on Earth. Although received with displays of fatherly affection by Dardarot,

472-483: A chapter of his book English Prose Style (1928) to discussing "Fantasy" as an aspect of literature, arguing it was unjustly considered suitable only for children: "The Western World does not seem to have conceived the necessity of Fairy Tales for Grown-Ups". In 1938, with the publication of The Sword in the Stone , T. H. White introduced one of the most notable works of comic fantasy . The first major contribution to

590-408: A close, this focus too modified to include the "excessively cruel and weird"—the unassailable meanness characterizing Ianuloaia being complemented by the murderous thoughts of Anca in the play Năpasta (1890) and by the violent bouts of hysteria displayed by Ileana, the incestuous protagonist of Păcat (1892). Interpretations of Caragiale's story continued to be present in cultural debates of

708-512: A consequence, the entire neighborhood is convinced that beans should never be eaten after radishes. Meanwhile, Ianulea begins courting Acrivița, the daughter of unsuccessful trader Hagi Cănuță, who is beautiful and well-proportioned, but has mild esotropia . Although she can offer him no dowry , he decides to marry her, and their wedding is an occasion for Ianulea to display his insatiable taste for luxury. The day after their union, Acrivița (also referred to as Ianuloaia , "Ianulea's woman") undergoes

826-586: A decade after Călinescu, philologist Ștefan Cazimir proposed that there is an "evolutionary thread" going from the fantasy stories by Costache Negruzzi (ca. 1840), through Kir Ianulea , and to the dark prose of Gala Galaction (ca. 1920). Another literary historian, George Bădărău, argued that Kir Ianulea stands alongside two other Schițe noi sections ( Calul dracului and the Arabian Nights -inspired Abu-Hasan ), and together with Ion Minulescu 's 1930 volume Cetiți-le noaptea ("Read Them at Night"), as

944-402: A demon possessing a woman or girl, she is to walk up to the victim, call out parigboria tu kosmu , and recount her longing for Ianulea. She promises to follow his advice, and Negoiță returns to court, before deciding to head out of the city for good. He receives yet more presents from the princely family, as well as emotional thanks from Manoli Ghaiduri. As Negoiță rides out on his way to Oltenia,

1062-480: A fellow English professor with a similar array of interests, also helped to publicize the fantasy genre. Tove Jansson , author of The Moomins , was also a strong contributor to the popularity of fantasy literature in the field of children and adults. The tradition established by these predecessors of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries has continued to thrive and be adapted by new authors. The influence of J.R.R. Tolkien's fiction has—particularly over

1180-596: A female acquaintance of hers has been fornicating with one of the Wallachian Prince 's sons, with a consul of the Russian Empire , and even, after being banished to Căldărușani Monastery , with an Orthodox monk. Acrivița also claims that the unnamed friend plots to "break" her household by committing adultery with Ianulea. This enrages Ianulea, and the couple begin shouting abuse at each other, while their stunned guests look on. The Ianuleas eventually reconcile and

1298-577: A fresco of historical Bucharest : "The episode, which is bare and concise in Belfagor , is shrouded here in particular details which serve to depict Phanariote Bucharest, with its roads, its means of transportation, its costumes. [...] Even if the good devil Kir Ianulea is the usual weak and enamored husband, Acrivița, the greedy and overbearing woman, and Negoiță, the shrewd peasant, are almost entirely for real." Tudor Vianu viewed Kir Ianulea as Caragiale's deepest exploration into his favorite object of derision:

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1416-507: A growing interest in the Balkans and the Levant in general, and in particular with producing "artistic Balkanism" on the basis of picturesque motifs. According to researcher Tatiana-Ana Fluieraru, the change also constituted a radical break with the modern themes of Caragiale's consecrated works, since, as opposed to his traditionalist counterparts, "nothing seemed to recommend Ion Luca Caragiale for

1534-532: A handsome young mortal and evicted from Hell by his moody overlord, Aghiuță decides to head for Bucharest, a city with "room for parties" and many business opportunities. He arrives in the Wallachian capital and books a room at Manuc's Inn , before renting a cluster of townhouses and gardens in Negustori area (the merchants' district, close to Colțea Hospital ). The new guest intrigues Aghiuță's new landlord, who sends

1652-504: A new play. Titled Un prieten de când lumea? ("A Friend as Old as Time?"), the text merged an intertextual structure borrowed directly from the novella with elements from comedies by Caragiale's uncle Iorgu , as well as with Craii de Curtea-Veche , a celebrated novel by Caragiale's estranged son Mateiu . According to theater critic Gabriela Riegler, Macrinici used this mix to produce an artistic statement about modern depersonalization and "Romanian mediocrity". Un prieten de când lumea?

1770-798: A period of rest to last three centuries, as "those little affairs down on earth left me dog-tired." Kir Ianulea belongs to the final period in Caragiale's career, during which he was mainly focusing on writing fantasy , moving away from stricter Realism and displaying more interest in the techniques of classical storytelling. The retired playwright, who lived in voluntary exile to the German Empire between 1905 and his 1912 death, dedicated his final literary contributions to short prose (from novellas to sketch stories ), and, according to literary critic Șerban Cioculescu , produced with Kir Ianulea "his most significant literary production of that period". Caragiale

1888-482: A political reservoir". Writing later, critic Mihai Zamfir also found Kir Ianulea to be one of the first and few works of fiction to make "an object of aesthetic contemplation" out of the Phanariote age (second only to Nicolae Filimon 's celebrated novel Upstarts Old and New ). The newer version is also noted for its characteristic offshoots into anecdote , which contribute to the overall difference in size between

2006-507: A pub. Although Manuc's Inn has been subject to repeated restorations — in 1848, 1863, 1966–1970, and 1991–1992, as well as the latest one in 2007 — its essential structure remained intact; of the three surviving 19th century inns in the Lipscani district, it is the only one currently in use as a hotel. The inn was the site of the preliminary talks for the Treaty of Bucharest , which put an end to

2124-411: A sample of Romanian literature where "the fantasy realm enters human reality [...], being less exploited as a vision, and more as an oddity." Writing in 2002, researcher Gabriela Chiciudean proposed that Kir Ianulea inaugurated "a new territory" in Caragiale's work, where the fantasy element was being "reduced to the dimensions of the human." According to novelist and theater critic Mircea Ghițulescu ,

2242-490: A scheme to reward his one-human benefactor, the peasant Negoiță. The narrative ends with a fall-out between Negoiță and Ianulea, and the latter's hasty return to Hell upon being threatened by a potential reunion with Acrivița. Caragiale's tale has been the target of critical interest since its publication, being discussed for its relation to Machiavelli's original story, its particular Neoromantic aesthetics and picturesque elements, its ambivalent take on feminism , as well as

2360-476: A since-lost Renaissance Latin version. A separate French-language version was published before in the 17th century, as part of Jean de La Fontaine 's Contes . Although the story had already been circulating in a Romanian variant (printed in Moldavia ), Caragiale's version was primarily based on a French translation from Machiavelli: Nouvelle très plaisante de l'archidiable Belphégor ("A Very Enjoyable Novella about

2478-520: A sudden change in character from "gentle and amendable" to "tougher and uppity", entitling herself master of the household and exercising control over her husband's affairs. She is also increasingly jealous, constantly spying on her husband and ordering her servants to do the same, but does not feel accountable for her own actions. She therefore hosts lavish parties and card game sessions in her husband's house, and irritates him by defaming her own friends. During one such gathering, she informs her guests that

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2596-428: Is Mihai Eminescu , Romania's national poet and his personal friend. Like with several other of his Schițe noi , Caragiale mentioned and credited his predecessor, first in his correspondence about the unfinished text, and ultimately within the footnotes of the published version. In one of his messages to Zarifopol, he invited his younger friend to review both texts and see "if I have been doing [Machiavelli] justice with

2714-455: Is a fable about the innate unreliability of women, to the realities of the Phanariote epoch, focusing his attention on the interactions between Greeks and Romanians while offering additional insight into the process of acculturation . Structured around its protagonist and named after his main alias, Kir Ianulea recounts how one of the lesser devils is assigned the mission of assessing

2832-472: Is also very correctly assessed." Mariana Cap-Bun ranks Acrivița's portrayal as "much more evil than the devil" alongside several "strong female characters" in Caragiale's stories and drama, arguing that this motif ultimately owed its inspiration to Shakespeare (and especially to Shakespearean tragedy , which is known to have been treasured by the Romanian author). She also finds that, as Caragiale's career drew to

2950-637: Is considered a genre of speculative fiction and is distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by the absence of scientific or macabre themes, respectively, though these may overlap. Historically, most works of fantasy were in written form , but since the 1960s, a growing segment of the fantasy genre has taken the form of films , television programs , graphic novels , video games , music and art. Many fantasy novels originally written for children and adolescents also attract an adult audience. Examples include Alice's Adventures in Wonderland ,

3068-454: Is immediately sent for, and reveals himself to be the girl's secret love interest, a "splendid" Greek from the princely guard. While the princess persistently asks Manoli to mangle the intruding healer, the latter thinks of a ruse: suggesting that the girl's illness needs specialized help, he asks permission to consult with Acrivița Ianulea, "the widow of the wretch", whom he recommends as a better doctor than he. His demand has an instant effect on

3186-458: Is itself meant to suggest the strangeness of Phanariote times. The latter attribute, he believes, is illustrated and enhanced by the use of terms directly borrowed from other languages and regularly surfacing throughout the text. Poet and folklorist Ioan Șerb, who included Caragiale's text in his Antologia basmului cult ("The Anthology of Cultured Fairy Tales"), placed it in direct comparison not just to Machiavelli's text, but also to an episode in

3304-440: Is no evidence of this in the courtyard or the inward-facing rooms. The inn was built in 1808 as a khan , and originally owned by a wealthy and flamboyant Armenian entrepreneur, Emanuel Mârzaian , better known under his Turkish name Manuc Bei . By the middle of the 19th century, it was Bucharest's most important commercial complex, with 15 wholesalers, 23 retail stores, 107 rooms for offices or living, two receiving rooms, and

3422-503: Is rich in the Turkisms and Graecisms of the Phanariote age and greatly contributes in rendering local color to the narrative which [...] is true to historical reality." George Călinescu focused on the presence of such words throughout Kir Ianulea , proposing that they were used by the author as both a means of adding "color" and a method for illustrating "spiritual nuances", concluding: "The narrative revolves around hysterical episodes." Among

3540-593: Is the illustrative power of dialogue, which allows characters to gain contour." Gabriela Chiciudean tracked resemblances between Kir Ianulea and the classical frame narratives of the Levant, working the pretext ("a subject fulfilling the orders of a king") into "labyrinthic paths". A primary method used by Caragiale in rendering depth to his narrative is the recovery of antiquated Romanian lexis , with Phanariote-era archaisms of Turkish or Hellenic origin. In reference to these cultural references, Lupi wrote: "The language

3658-416: Is thought by comparatist Mariana Cap-Bun to have grown aware of his own international recognition by 1900-1910: this revelation, Cap-Bun argues, is what prompted him to diversify his approach and seek to contribute works with a universal appeal, primarily by reworking old narrative themes. In his 1941 synthesis of literary history, influential critic George Călinescu also identified Caragiale's maturity with

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3776-581: Is thought to be the case for the character's stated pride that, despite being a foreigner (an Albanian , in Cioculescu's interpretation), he is both versed in Romanian culture and a polyglot . The notion that Ianulea is in effect Caragiale's alter ego has subsequently become commonplace among investigators of his work. According to Cioculescu: "This is, after all, the only place where the author reveals his entirely justified philological pride." Rotiroti theorizes

3894-426: Is too bland or simplistic creates the impression that the fantasy setting is simply a modern world in disguise, and presents examples of clear, effective fantasy writing in brief excerpts from Tolkien and Evangeline Walton . Michael Moorcock observed that many writers use archaic language for its sonority and to lend color to a lifeless story. Brian Peters writes that in various forms of fairytale fantasy , even

4012-501: The Harry Potter series, The Chronicles of Narnia , and The Hobbit . Stories involving magic and terrible monsters have existed in spoken forms before the advent of printed literature. Classical mythology is replete with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer (Greek) and Virgil (Roman). The philosophy of Plato has had great influence on

4130-619: The Kalevala , they compiled existing folklore into an epic to match other nation's, and sometimes, as in The Poems of Ossian , they fabricated folklore that should have been there. These works, whether fairy tale, ballads, or folk epics, were a major source for later fantasy works. The Romantic interest in medievalism also resulted in a revival of interest in the literary fairy tale. The tradition begun with Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile and developed by Charles Perrault and

4248-532: The 1806–1812 Russo-Turkish war . In 1842 it briefly housed Bucharest's town hall. Around 1880 a hall at the inn was used as a theatre, and was the site of the first Romanian operetta performance. Before Romania entered World War I , in 1914–1916, the hall "Sala Dacia" hosted meetings of the Romanian pro-war party seeking to establish a Greater Romania by uniting with Transylvania and Bukovina ; speakers included Nicolae Filipescu, Take Ionescu , Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , and Octavian Goga . The building

4366-458: The 1989 Revolution . Declaring himself a disciple of Caragiale, writer and humorist Radu Cosașu referred to Kir Ianulea as "our father's most accomplished masterpiece". Also according to Cosașu, Kir Ianulea and Cănuță om sucit are two of Caragiale's most valuable stories in danger of being forgotten by readers, whereas his plays are being turned into "giant, intimidating clichés." In 2002, dramatist Radu Macrinici adapted Kir Ianulea into

4484-453: The Age of Enlightenment . Many of Perrault's tales became fairy tale staples and were influential to later fantasy. When d'Aulnoy termed her works contes de fée (fairy tales), she invented the term that is now generally used for the genre, thus distinguishing such tales from those involving no marvels. This approach influenced later writers who took up the folk fairy tales in the same manner during

4602-478: The Colțea Belfry on a silver platter, kir Ianulea would have brought it to her on a silver platter"). As a result, Ianule's fortune is steadily depleted, and he comes to rely on expected proceeds from his investment in the business of his brothers-in-law, while steadily falling into debt. While his credit rating crumbles, Acrivița's itinerant siblings return with bad news: one has lost his ship in front of İzmir ,

4720-523: The Elizabethan era in England , fantasy literature became extraordinarily popular and fueled populist and anti-authoritarian sentiment during the 1590s . Topics that were written about included " fairylands in which the sexes traded places [and] men and immortals mingl[ing]". Romanticism , a movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, was a dramatic reaction to rationalism, challenging

4838-685: The Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem —victims of bowel obstruction caused by eating beans after radishes. He recounts having been kept on as a servant and boy seaman by the brutal captain of the ship, and having survived a number of near shipwrecks , and then purchasing his own vessel. After further such adventures, Aghiuță-Ianulea claims, he had been able to amass a fortune and settle in a peaceful country. He also boasts knowledge of several languages without access to formal studies, and claims that his knowledge of Romanian will put Wallachian locals to shame. In

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4956-710: The Middle East has been influential in the West since it was translated from the Arabic into French in 1704 by Antoine Galland . Many imitations were written, especially in France. The Fornaldarsagas , Norse and Icelandic sagas , both of which are based on ancient oral tradition influenced the German Romantics, as well as William Morris , and J. R. R. Tolkien . The Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf has also had deep influence on

5074-563: The One Thousand and One Nights and an anecdote in Romanian folklore (collected by Ovidiu Bârlea in Hunedoara County ). In Șerb's assessment, the main difference between such prose and Caragiale's text was the latter's " progressive tendency" and move toward "rehabilitating women". This perspective was received with reserve by Cioculescu: "kir Ianulea's wife, far from suggesting an intent for rehabilitation on Caragiale's part, illustrates

5192-520: The Phanariote prince's daughter is also being tormented by a demon. Although much troubled, the healer follows princely envoys, and is warmly greeted by the prince (who casually addresses him in Greek, unaware that Negoiță is in reality a local peasant). Nevertheless, the princess strongly rejects the healer's presence, and asks instead for "my old man", a certain Captain Manoli Ghaiduri. The soldier

5310-529: The Romantic era . Several fantasies aimed at an adult readership were also published in 18th century France, including Voltaire 's " contes philosophique " The Princess of Babylon (1768) and The White Bull (1774). This era, however, was notably hostile to fantasy. Writers of the new types of fiction such as Defoe , Richardson , and Fielding were realistic in style, and many early realistic works were critical of fantastical elements in fiction. However, in

5428-510: The interwar period and beyond. In 1932, Aromanian writer and cultural activist Nicolae Constantin Batzaria contributed an essay tracking down and assessing the Levantine narrative motifs retold by Kir Ianulea . The narrative's recovery of the foreign-influenced and often vilified past was viewed with reserve by 1930s nationalists such as philosopher and fantasy author Mircea Eliade , who found

5546-552: The "First Terrible Fate that Awaiteth Unwary Beginners in Fantasy", alluding to young writers attempting to write in Lord Dunsany's style. According to S. T. Joshi , "Dunsany's work had the effect of segregating fantasy—a mode whereby the author creates his own realm of pure imagination—from supernatural horror. From the foundations he established came the later work of E. R. Eddison , Mervyn Peake , and J. R. R. Tolkien. In Britain in

5664-574: The Archdevil Belphegor"). However, he also checked other variants, and informed himself about a German-language translation. The Romanian writer was by then an outspoken admirer of the Renaissance thinker, and his various records mention Machiavelli with words of high praise. According to literary historian Constantin Trandafir, the only other person for whom "Caragiale reserved as many superlatives"

5782-605: The French précieuses was taken up by the German Romantic movement. The German author Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué created medieval-set stories such as Undine (1811) and Sintram and his Companions (1815), which would later inspire British writers such as George MacDonald and William Morris . E.T.A. Hoffmann 's tales, such as The Golden Pot (1814) and The Nutcracker and the Mouse King (1816) were notable additions to

5900-443: The Romanian middle class. This middle-class prehistory, Vianu notes, completes his earlier contributions to Romanian drama and comediography , his satire of social customs, and his ridicule of established political opinion. Vianu further noted that the story pinpoints the original middle-class acculturation : "the epoch of Greek penetration, when the bases for a large section of the local bourgeoisie were being laid down, creating

6018-521: The Southwest Wind an irascible but kindly character similar to J.R.R. Tolkien 's later Gandalf . The history of modern fantasy literature began with George MacDonald, author of such novels as The Princess and the Goblin (1868) and Phantastes (1868), the latter of which is widely considered to be the first fantasy novel written for adults. MacDonald also wrote one of the first critical essays about

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6136-622: The Vampire ), a collection of various fantasy tales set within a frame story is, according to Richard Francis Burton and Isabel Burton , "the germ which culminated in the Arabian Nights , and which also inspired the Golden Ass of Apuleius , (2nd century A.D). Boccaccio 's Decamerone (c.1353) the Pentamerone (1634, 1636) and all that class of facetious fictitious literature." The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) from

6254-529: The aftermath of World War I, a notably large number of fantasy books aimed at an adult readership were published, including Living Alone (1919) by Stella Benson , A Voyage to Arcturus (1920) by David Lindsay , Lady into Fox (1922) by David Garnett , Lud-in-the-Mist (1926) by Hope Mirrlees , and Lolly Willowes (1926) by Sylvia Townsend Warner . E. R. Eddison was another influential writer who wrote during this era. He drew inspiration from Northern sagas, as Morris did, but his prose style

6372-401: The body, or better said the various allusions to its components ('ear', 'tail') play a part that undermines with irony the structures attributable to this reality." Also according to Rotiroti, the hierarchy of significance is modified by the earthly episodes within the plot, particularly since Aghiuță's new identity is that of an outsider who holds a succession of roles, and since his foreign name

6490-456: The boy is reluctant to perform such tasks, since, as the narrator informs, he is not on his first mission among humans: previously, he had served an old woman, and forced by her to expend his energy on the futile task of straightening a curly hair. Unimpressed, Dardarot provides him with 100,000 gold coins (the bounty confiscated from a stingy mortal), with the indication that he is to marry and live with his human wife for ten years. Transformed into

6608-432: The canon of German fantasy. Ludwig Tieck 's collection Phantasus (1812–1817) contained several short fairy tales, including "The Elves". In France, the main writers of Romantic-era fantasy were Charles Nodier with Smarra (1821) and Trilby (1822) and Théophile Gautier who penned such stories as "Omphale" (1834) and " One of Cleopatra's Nights " (1838) as well as the novel Spirite (1866). Fantasy literature

6726-411: The continent. Other writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs and Abraham Merritt , further developed the style. Several classic children's fantasies such as Lewis Carroll 's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865), L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), as well as the work of E. Nesbit and Frank R. Stockton were also published around this time. C. S. Lewis noted that in

6844-506: The dated "violently southern" terms mentioned by Călinescu are capsoman ("stubborn man"), daraveră ("business"), ipochimen ("guy"), isnaf ("corporation"), levent ("gentlemanly"), proclet ("accursed"), matuf ("senile man"), mufluz ("bankrupt man"), selemet ("bankruptcy"), techer-mecher ("hurriedly"), zuliară ("jealous woman") and zumaricale ("sweets"). In order to add to the authenticity of his novella, Caragiale also contemplated inserting into it several fragments of poems by

6962-416: The daughter of a local administrator, the kaymakam . This happens exactly as predicted by the devil, who, upon exiting the girl's body, informs the peasant that he no longer considers himself indebted. As thanks for his service, Negoiță is granted an Oltenian estate and assigned a boyar's title . His blissful relaxation is interrupted abruptly when the kaymakam orders him on mission to Bucharest, where

7080-481: The development of fantasy with their writing of horror stories. Wilde also wrote a large number of children's fantasies, collected in The Happy Prince and Other Stories (1888) and A House of Pomegranates (1891). H. Rider Haggard developed the conventions of the lost world subgenre with his novel King Solomon's Mines (1885), which presented a fantastical Africa to a European audience still unfamiliar with

7198-472: The devil takes control of another young lady, the daughter of Wallachia's Orthodox Metropolitan . This is Acrivița's opportunity to follow Negoiță's advice, and, as soon as she enters the room, the demon flees in panic. The story ends on Aghiuță's return to Hell, where he requests from Dardarot not to ever accept either Negoiță and Acrivița into Hell, and assign them instead to Heaven: "let Saint Peter make up with them as best he can." He also demands and obtains

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7316-408: The devil's got into a woman, a wife, or a girl, whatever, no matter the place where they live and no matter what station in life they have, you should know it's about me that they're talking. You go right away to the respective house for I won't leave the woman until you chase me out... Naturally that seeing you cure their precious jewel they will offer you a reward". The devil leaves the vineyard, and

7434-493: The devilish creature Belphegor as their protagonist. A better known Italian-language incarnation of the theme is Niccolò Machiavelli 's Belfagor arcidiavolo , published in his 1549 collected works. Machiavelli's text was however preceded by a shorter version, signed Giovanni Brevio and first printed 1545 as Novella di Belfagorx . In the 19th century, Scottish academic John Colin Dunlop claimed that these writings were all based on

7552-446: The earlier part of the 20th century, fantasy was more accepted in juvenile literature, and therefore a writer interested in fantasy often wrote for that audience, despite using concepts and themes that could form a work aimed at adults. At this time, the terminology for the genre was not settled. Many fantasies in this era were termed fairy tales, including Max Beerbohm 's " The Happy Hypocrite " (1896) and MacDonald's Phantastes . It

7670-541: The end, Ianulea threatens Marghioala not to share his secret with anyone else, aware that such a warning will only entice her to spread the story around the neighborhood. Rumor spreads of Ianulea's fortune and the young man, referred to as a kir ("sir", from the Greek κύρ), becomes the center of interest in high society, being invited to events organized by boyars and merchants alike. The details of his account become well-known, his deeds magnified by popular imagination, and, as

7788-499: The epic Mabinogion . One influential retelling of this was the fantasy work of Evangeline Walton . The Irish Ulster Cycle and Fenian Cycle have also been plentifully mined for fantasy. Its greatest influence was, however, indirect. Celtic folklore and mythology provided a major source for the Arthurian cycle of chivalric romance : the Matter of Britain . Although the subject matter

7906-404: The euphoria of the storyteller and the playwright who knows how to stage a situation for his characters [...]. But the lack of misogyny does not at all imply that the author, who so well depicts the circumstances of kir Ianulea's exasperation, is an advocate of women. [...] That Acrivița is 'fundamentally evil' is instantly apparent to any reader; that she is not a typical representative of all women

8024-435: The evil and negativity of women. In order to accomplish this task, he must live the life of a mortal, and chooses Bucharest as his city of residence. The main part of the story recounts his unhappy marriage to the tyrannical and dishonest Acrivița, his realization that his future among humans was compromised, and his narrow escape from his creditors. The third part shows the devil possessing aristocratic young women as part of

8142-509: The fantasy genre, "The Fantastic Imagination", in his book A Dish of Orts (1893). MacDonald was a major influence on both Tolkien and C. S. Lewis . The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris, an admirer of the Middle Ages and a poet who wrote several fantastic romances and novels in the latter part of the 19th century, including The Well at the World's End (1896). Morris

8260-608: The fantasy genre. In the Christian Platonic tradition, the reality of other worlds, and an overarching structure of great metaphysical and moral importance, has lent substance to the fantasy worlds of modern works. With Empedocles ( c.  490  – c.  430 BC ), elements are often used in fantasy works as personifications of the forces of nature. India has a long tradition of fantastical stories and characters, dating back to Vedic mythology . The Panchatantra ( Fables of Bidpai ), which some scholars believe

8378-407: The fantasy genre; although it was unknown for centuries and so not developed in medieval legend and romance, several fantasy works have retold the tale, such as John Gardner 's Grendel . Celtic folklore and legend has been an inspiration for many fantasy works. The Welsh tradition has been particularly influential, owing to its connection to King Arthur and its collection in a single work,

8496-511: The first literary results of this trend was the Gothic novel , a genre that began in Britain with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole . That work is considered the predecessor to both modern fantasy and modern horror fiction . Another noted Gothic novel which also contains a large amount of Arabian Nights -influenced fantasy elements is Vathek (1786) by William Thomas Beckford . In

8614-543: The focus moves on Negoiță. Catching rumor of a demonic possession in Colentina neighborhood, where a rich girl has come to speak in tongues , shouting and divulging all sorts of embarrassing secrets. The vineyard keeper promises to relieve her suffering in exchange for 100 gold coins, and Ianulea subsequently fulfills his promise. He scolds Negoiță for accepting such a small amount, and informs that he should make his way for Craiova , where they are going to repeat their act with

8732-713: The genre after World War II was Mervyn Peake 's Titus Groan (1946), the book that launched the Gormenghast series . J. R. R. Tolkien played a large role in the popularization and accessibility of the fantasy genre with his highly successful publications The Hobbit (1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–55). Tolkien was largely influenced by an ancient body of Anglo-Saxon myths , particularly Beowulf , as well as William Morris's romances and E. R. Eddison 's 1922 novel, The Worm Ouroboros . Tolkien's close friend C. S. Lewis , author of The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–56) and

8850-435: The genre of high fantasy —prompted a reaction. In China, the idea of fantasy literature as a distinct genre first became prevalent in the early 21st century. China has long had pre-genre stories with fantastical elements, including zhiguai , ghost stories, and miracle tales, among others. It is not uncommon for fantasy novels to be ranked on The New York Times Best Seller list , and some have been at number one on

8968-428: The importance of words in defining the fairy tale's two " semantic fields". The original and concrete one is Hell, where "semantics are organized in pyramid fashion, and ordered [...] as signified of signifiers ." He adds: "Even if the comedic effect [...] springs from an estranging, corporal, obscene, quasi-sexual effect, provided by the strange 'fatherly love'-based relationship between the little devil and his emperor,

9086-466: The interval was primarily marked by a Neoromantic and Neoclassical interest in Renaissance and Elizabethan writings, making Caragiale a direct descendant of frame story authors and a disciple of William Shakespeare . In his assessment, Kir Ianulea shares such traits with other Schițe noi tales, primarily Pastramă trufanda and Calul dracului (the latter of which he believes to be "one of

9204-496: The kir is placated, addressing his wife as parigboria tu kosmu (παρηγοριά του κόσμου, "consolation of the world"). Unbeknown to him, Acrivița has by then begun selling various objects of value in his property to feed her gambling habit . Tricking Ianulea with displays of her affection, she also persuades him to provide a dowry for her two unmarried sisters, as well as capital for her two brothers' respective businesses. Ianulea proceeds to service this and other whims ("had she asked for

9322-466: The late 18th-century author Costache Conachi . Language and its uses plays a relevant part in the plot, providing additional clues and supporting elements. In Călinescu's opinion, Kir Ianulea differs from Caragiale's early works, where specialized or erroneous language is used for comedic effect; in this case, he argues, the Romanian author attempted not to ridicule his characters, but to reflect their background and origin. Kir Ianulea therefore records

9440-532: The later part of the Romantic period, folklorists collected folktales, epic poems, and ballads, and released them in printed form. The Brothers Grimm were inspired by the movement of German Romanticism in their 1812 collection Grimm's Fairy Tales , and they in turn inspired other collectors. Frequently their motivation stemmed not merely from Romanticism, but from Romantic nationalism , in that many were inspired to save their own country's folklore. Sometimes, as in

9558-431: The list, including most recently, Brandon Sanderson in 2014, Neil Gaiman in 2013, Patrick Rothfuss and George R. R. Martin in 2011, and Terry Goodkind in 2006. Symbolism often plays a significant role in fantasy literature, often through the use of archetypal figures inspired by earlier texts or folklore . Some argue that fantasy literature and its archetypes fulfill a function for individuals and society and

9676-550: The messages are continually updated for current societies. Ursula K. Le Guin , in her essay "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", presented the idea that language is the most crucial element of high fantasy , because it creates a sense of place. She analyzed the misuse of a formal, "olden-day" style, saying that it was a dangerous trap for fantasy writers because it was ridiculous when done wrong. She warns writers away from trying to base their style on that of masters such as Lord Dunsany and E. R. Eddison , emphasizing that language that

9794-406: The modern image of "medieval" is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre, and the word medieval evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and other romantic tropes. At the time of the Renaissance romance continued to be popular, and the trend was to more fantastic fiction. The English Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory (c.1408–1471) was written in prose, and

9912-641: The most influential writers of fantasy and horror in the 20th century. Despite MacDonald's future influence, and Morris' popularity at the time, it was not until around the start of the 20th century that fantasy fiction began to reach a large audience, with authors such as Lord Dunsany (1878–1957) who, following Morris's example, wrote fantasy novels, but also in the short story form. He was particularly noted for his vivid and evocative style. His style greatly influenced many writers, not always happily; Ursula K. Le Guin , in her essay on style in fantasy "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", wryly referred to Lord Dunsany as

10030-456: The most perfect stories written in the Romanian language "). Such writings drew critical attention for subtly merging the supernatural elements into a realistic whole. Calling attention to this special trait, Călinescu likened Kir Ianulea to Stan Pățitul , a prose piece by his contemporary Ion Creangă , which similarly recounts how the Devil finds refuge in a modern, albeit rural, setting. Writing

10148-441: The narrative, reaching the point of " anti-artistic " literature. The importance of various other linguistic elements within the narrative has also been highlighted by other researchers of Caragiale's work. An early observation made by Zarifopol, and cited by Cioculescu in agreement with his own arguments, has it that the author introduced references to himself and his Greek-Romanian origins in his portrayal of Aghiuță-Ianulea. This

10266-470: The old and cunning housekeeper Marghioala to engage him in conversation and find out his story. Recommending himself as Ianulea "of Arvanite stock", the young man explains that he is from near Mount Athos ( Sfântagora ), in Ottoman Greece , the son of olive tree planters. He provides an elaborate story about his early years, claiming that both his parents died at sea, while taking him on pilgrimage to

10384-781: The oldest recorded form of many well-known (and some more obscure) European fairy tales. This was the beginning of a tradition that would both influence the fantasy genre and be incorporated in it, as many works of fairytale fantasy appear to this day. In a work on alchemy in the 16th century, Paracelsus (1493–1541) identified four types of beings with the four elements of alchemy: gnomes (earth elementals); undines (water); sylphs (air); and salamanders (fire). Most of these beings are found in folklore as well as alchemy, and their names are often used interchangeably with similar beings from folklore. Literary fairy tales, such as those written by Charles Perrault (1628–1703) and Madame d'Aulnoy (c.1650 – 1705), became very popular early in

10502-510: The origin of speech patterns which are natural for 18th-century boyars and traders, and which only become ridiculous at the other end of the Westernization process, where Caragiale's main plays reside: "This natural style [of speech] has later fallen through obsolescence into the immediately inferior class, as things will usually happen when the folk dress is concerned." This perspective prompted Călinescu to conclude that "Caragiale's genius"

10620-799: The other has been robbed at the Leipzig Trade Fair . Ianulea's only option is to flee Bucharest in a haste and escape his creditors. As he rides past Cuțitul de Argint Church , he notices that he is being pursued by armed guards, sent by the Bucharest Aga to lock him into a debtors' prison . He abandons his horse and runs up a hill and into a vineyard, pleading with the keeper to provide him with shelter. The latter, who presents himself as Negoiță, reluctantly accepts to do so when Ianulea assures him that his pursuers are not boyars. In exchange for his help, Ianulea lets him on his secret identity, and promises to reward him. He explains: "Whenever you hear that

10738-441: The pieces where Caragiale "brought only his storyteller's art, and nothing from his invention". Giovanni Rotiroti, an Italian critic and psychoanalyst , argues: "The Romanian novella does not move very far away from Machiavelli's, except in matters of lexical richness, as well as in scale and number of pages." Evidencing the thematic relationship and the tripartite structure of both stories, Rotiroti concludes: "The parallelism between

10856-547: The princess: instead of shrieking and shouting, she begins cluttering her teeth. Within three days, she is spontaneously relieved of her symptoms. Negoiță does however proceed to Negustori, learning that Acrivița was chased out of her home by the creditors and moved back in with her father. Once there, he claims to be a debtor of Ianulea's, presenting her with 100 gold coins and a deed to the Cuțitul de Argint vineyard. He manages to intrigue her by suggesting that, should she ever hear of

10974-474: The priority of reason and promoting the importance of imagination and spirituality. Its success in rehabilitating imagination was of fundamental importance to the evolution of fantasy, and its interest in medieval romances provided many motifs to modern fantasy. The Romantics invoked the medieval romance as a model for the works they wanted to produce, in contrast to the realism of the Enlightenment. One of

11092-446: The rendition of popular stories and anecdotes." She also notes that, in respect to his thematic choices, the writer remained "quite cosmopolitan ", Kir Ianulea being among eight of his last thirty-two stories to choose Levantine subjects over Romanian folkloric sources. Caragiale himself was very pleased with the results of his activity, and called the resulting tales his best works ever. According to literary historian Tudor Vianu ,

11210-495: The seminal works written by him during the last decade of his life. While its narrative structure is largely based on Belfagor arcidiavolo , a story by 16th century writer and political thinker Niccolò Machiavelli , Kir Ianulea employs additional elements such as anecdotes to evolve into a social fresco of late 18th-century Wallachia and the Ottoman -ruled Balkans as a whole. Caragiale primarily adapts Machiavelli's theme, which

11328-409: The source and the replica version. The "pleasure of the anecdote" is identified by Cioculescu as the basis for Ianulea's detailed account about his origins, including the recipe for avoiding bowel obstruction (described by the critic as "an innocent devilish prank"). Cioculescu also notes: "Caragiale is clearly superior to Machiavelli as a storyteller; the thing responsible for this comfortable handicap

11446-475: The source. Caragial's localized adaptation takes place, according to Călinescu, during the rule of Prince Nicholas Mavrogenes (1786–1789), or, in Cioculescu's account: "toward the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the next, in still- Phanariote Bucharest, where one finds Manuc's Inn and the Negustori suburb". Italian literary historian and Romanist Gino Lupi finds that the Phanariote references touch every aspect of Caragiale's retelling, producing

11564-484: The story joins up with some other samples of Caragiale's short prose ( Pastramă trufanda , but also La hanul lui Mânjoală and O făclie de Paște ) in anticipating the " magic realism " of the 1960s Latin American Boom . Reportedly drafted in three days, the tale is believed to have taken some three weeks to perfect. On January 12, 1909, Caragiale wrote to his friend and biographer Paul Zarifopol that Kir Ianulea

11682-518: The story of my Kir Ianulea." However, he also made a point of claiming that the Belfagor story no longer belonged to its creator: "since always, the stories belong to everybody, but the manner of recounting them belongs, no matter what the age, to the raconteur". A number of significant thematic and stylistic differences exist between the 1549 story and the 1909 Romanian version, which is almost four times as large as Machiavelli's; as noted early on by scholar Mihail Dragomirescu , Caragiale's text grew as

11800-681: The story the most objectionable one among Caragiale's writings. In 1939, composer Sabin Drăgoi completed an operetta version of the story, which premiered at the Romanian Opera in Cluj (it was one of the last Romanian shows to be performed in the city before the Second Vienna Award granted Northern Transylvania to Hungary ). Kir Ianulea in particular has served to inspire a number of Caragiale's followers among modernist and postmodernist Romanian authors, with new elements being added after

11918-444: The supposed evils of womanhood and the morals of medieval Florence . In contrast to Belphegor, Caragiale's protagonist is feeble, shy, and, Șerban Cioculescu argues, a "sympathetic" figure. These differences were still deemed insufficient by Călinescu and by his contemporary, the influential modernist reviewer Eugen Lovinescu . The former judged Kir Ianulea a "larger version" of Machiavelli's account, while Lovinescu saw it as one of

12036-462: The two novellas is perfect". He believes that Caragiale imagined a partial translation from Machiavelli, discarding those fragments he identified as weak, and turning the Florentine peculiarities into things that a modern Romanian audience could find alluring. Tatiana-Ana Fluieraru also proposes that Caragiale's story, unlike his other late pieces which reuse older themes, is an "actual reconstruction" of

12154-508: The unbearable, exasperating character of a woman who is almost literally infernal. Only the fact that she does not resort to murder imposes the reserve of this 'almost'." In addition to her many psychological defects, Cioculescu argues, Caragiale hinted to Acrivița's innate negativity by mentioning her esotropia , exploiting the Romanian tradition according to which distinct marks on one's face are bad omens . Cioculescu wrote: "Actually, Caragiale builds his theme without misogynistic hatred, with

12272-517: The various allusions to concrete social realities. Among the latter are its original insight into the urban culture of Romania in the pre- Westernization period, the recovery of Greek or Turkish influences on the Romanian lexis , and the possible intention on Caragiale's part to depict Ianulea as his alter ego . The story has had its own sizable impact on local literature and the culture of Romania , notably serving to inspire writers such as Radu Cosașu and Radu Macrinici , and being turned into

12390-505: The villain's language might be inappropriate if vulgar. Manuc%27s Inn Manuc's Inn ( Romanian : Hanul lui Manuc , pronounced [ˈhanu(l) luj maˈnuk] ) is the oldest operating hotel building in Bucharest , Romania . It also houses a popular restaurant, several bars, a coffee-house, and (facing the street) several stores and an extensive bar. Its massive, multiply balconied courtyard hosted many performances and fairs and

12508-582: The work dominates the Arthurian literature. Arthurian motifs have appeared steadily in literature from its publication, though the works have been a mix of fantasy and non-fantasy works. At the time, it and the Spanish Amadis de Gaula (1508), which was also written in prose, spawned many imitators, and the genre was popularly well-received. It later produced such masterpieces of Renaissance poetry as Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando furioso and Torquato Tasso 's Gerusalemme Liberata . Ariosto's tale in particular

12626-478: Was a popular place for Romanian Television crews to shoot folkloric performances. The hotel and restaurant were refurbished in 2007. The building is located at 62–64 strada Franceză (the street has been variously known in the past as Iuliu Maniu, 30 Decembrie, and Carol), across the street from the ruins of the Old Court (Curtea Veche). Although one side now faces a vast modern public square, Piața Unirii , there

12744-436: Was a source text for many fantasies of adventure. During the Renaissance , Giovanni Francesco Straparola wrote and published The Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550–1555), a collection of stories of which many are literary fairy tales . Giambattista Basile wrote and published the Pentamerone , which was the first collection of stories to contain solely what would later be known as fairy tales. The two works include

12862-453: Was completed, jokingly adding: "With God's help, I have finally finished off the devil!" The story was soon after published in the Iași -based magazine Viața Românească . In 1910, it was ultimately included in Caragiale's last anthumous prose collection, Schițe noi ("New Sketches"). The central theme in Caragiale's story is directly borrowed from Western European Renaissance stories which have

12980-497: Was composed around the 3rd century BC. It is based on older oral traditions, including "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine". It was influential in Europe and the Middle East . It used various animal fables and magical tales to illustrate the central Indian principles of political science . Talking animals endowed with human qualities have now become a staple of modern fantasy. The Baital Pachisi ( Vikram and

13098-505: Was heavily reworked by the authors, these romances developed marvels until they became independent of the original folklore and fictional, an important stage in the development of fantasy. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that reworked legends , fairy tales , and history to suit the readers' and hearers' tastes, but by c.  1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote . Still,

13216-455: Was in exposing and "rehabilitating" the earliest stage of a degenerative process, by reflecting the language of the mahala (a suburb or ghetto , commonly stereotyped as an uncivilized and unregulated community). However, he also criticized Caragiale's own belief that texts such as Kir Ianulea were stylistically accomplished because their Romanian was harmonious, believing that "spontaneity" and " naturalism " towered over "melody" throughout

13334-412: Was inspired by the medieval sagas, and his writing was deliberately archaic in the style of the chivalric romances . Morris's work represented an important milestone in the history of fantasy, as while other writers wrote of foreign lands or of dream worlds , Morris was the first to set his stories in an entirely invented world . Authors such as Edgar Allan Poe and Oscar Wilde also contributed to

13452-449: Was modeled more on Tudor and Elizabethan English, and his stories were filled with vigorous characters in glorious adventures. Eddison's most famous work is The Worm Ouroboros (1922), a long heroic fantasy set on an imaginary version of the planet Mercury. Literary critics of the era began to take an interest in "fantasy" as a genre of writing, and also to argue that it was a genre worthy of serious consideration. Herbert Read devoted

13570-421: Was not until 1923 that the term "fantasist" was used to describe a writer (in this case, Oscar Wilde) who wrote fantasy fiction. The name "fantasy" was not developed until later; as late as J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit (1937), the term "fairy tale" was still being used. An important factor in the development of the fantasy genre was the arrival of magazines devoted to fantasy fiction. The first such publication

13688-518: Was notably staged in 2002 by Sfântu Gheorghe 's Andrei Mureșanu Theater , with Florin Vidamski as Ianulea. Fantasy literature Fantasy literature is literature set in an imaginary universe , often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world. Magic , the supernatural and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds. Fantasy literature may be directed at both children and adults. Fantasy

13806-548: Was popular in Victorian times , with the works of writers such as Mary Shelley , William Morris, George MacDonald, and Charles Dodgson reaching wider audiences. Hans Christian Andersen took a new approach to fairy tales by creating original stories told in a serious fashion. From this origin, John Ruskin wrote The King of the Golden River (1851), a fairy tale that included complex levels of characterization and created in

13924-489: Was the German magazine Der Orchideengarten which ran from 1919 to 1921. In 1923, the first English-language fantasy fiction magazine, Weird Tales , was created. Many other similar magazines eventually followed. and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction H. P. Lovecraft was deeply influenced by Edgar Allan Poe and to a somewhat lesser extent, by Lord Dunsany; with his Cthulhu Mythos stories, he became one of

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