Kilju , sometimes romanized as Kilchu , is a county in North Hamgyong province, North Korea . The county seat is Kilju Town.
133-440: The area around Kilju was part of the ancient Goguryeo kingdom and was long inhabited by various Jurchen tribes. In 1107 it was annexed by Goryeo , who gave it its current name (meaning "province of good fortune"). After the ascension of Joseon Dynasty , Kilju was promoted to county in 1398, and in 1509 the county was included in the newly formed Hamgyong Province . In 1895, during a reorganization of regional governments, Hamgyong
266-437: A Han. But all my life I have made a hobby of Manchu." Shen didn't have to learn Manchu as part of his job because he was never an official,so he seems to have studied it voluntarily. Most Han people were not interested in learning non-Han languages, so it is not known why Shen was doing it, but he did praise Manchu writing, saying that it was simpler and clearer than Chinese. A Hangzhou Han Chinese, Chen Mingyuan , helped edit
399-547: A Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable. Wanyan Aguda , chief of the Wanyan tribe, unified
532-573: A Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained
665-569: A Manchu–Chinese dictionary. In the late 1830s, Georgy M. Rozov translated from Manchu the History of the Jin (Jurchen) Dynasty . A school to train Manchu language translators was started in Irkutsk in the 18th century, and existed for a fairly long period. An anonymous author remarked in 1844 that the transcription of Chinese words in Manchu alphabet, available in the contemporary Chinese–Manchu dictionaries,
798-451: A commotion'). Manchu has twenty consonants, shown in the table using each phoneme's representation in the IPA , followed by its romanization in italics. /pʰ/ was rare and found mostly in loanwords and onomatopoeiae , such as pak pik ('pow pow'). Historically, /p/ appears to have been common, but changed over time to /f/ . /ŋ/ was also found mostly in loanwords and onomatopoeiae and there
931-586: A force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Lim Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army
1064-399: A quiver with arrows and a bent sword. The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent, to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life. The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground. Manchu language Manchu (Manchu: ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ , Romanization: manju gisun )
1197-402: A rule, back and front vowels cannot co-occur in a word: in other words, the lone front vowel never occurs in a word with any the regular back vowels ( a, o, ū ). (An exception is the diphthong eo , which does occur in some words, i.e. deo , "younger brother", geo , "a mare", jeo , "department", leole , "to discuss", leose , "building", and šeole , "to embroider", "to collect". ) In contrast,
1330-706: A stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles. In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from
1463-404: A vowel. In some words, there were vowels that were separated by consonant clusters, as in the words ilha ('flower') and abka ('heaven'); however, in most words, the vowels were separated from one another by only single consonants. This open syllable structure might not have been found in all varieties of spoken Manchu, but it was certainly found in the southern dialect that became the basis for
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#17330860452811596-624: A year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233. Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty. Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens ( 野人女真 ; yěrén Nǚzhēn ) of what became Outer Manchuria , the Haixi Jurchens ( 海西女真 ) of modern Heilongjiang Province and
1729-427: Is vowel harmony . It is described as based on the opposition between back and front vowels , but these phonological natural classes differ from the actual phonetic realization. The vowels a, o, ū function as back, as expected, but the only phonologically front vowel is e (even though it is phonetically central). Finally, the vowels i and u function as "neutral" vowels for the purposes of vowel harmony. As
1862-663: Is 7.5 °C (-7.6 °C in January and 22.2 °C in August). Tourist sites in Kilju include the former Kilju Magistrate's Hall , built in 1888 to house the office, and the Kilju Hyanggyo , one of the provincial schools founded during the Yi dynasty to teach the children of the rural Yangban (scholar-aristocrats) who lived in the area.) The Pukkwan Victory Monument , located in this county before
1995-779: Is a critically endangered East Asian Tungusic language native to the historical region of Manchuria in Northeast China . As the traditional native language of the Manchus , it was one of the official languages of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China, although today the vast majority of Manchus speak only Mandarin Chinese . Several thousand can speak Manchu as a second language through governmental primary education or free classes for adults in classrooms or online. The Manchu language has high historical value for historians of China, especially for
2128-466: Is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria , before the 18th century. The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji . Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under
2261-649: Is located in the southern part of North Hamgyong. It borders Myŏngch'ŏn on the east, Kimch'aek and Hwadae to the south, Myŏnggan (Hwasŏng) and Ŏrang to the north. To the west it borders Tanch'ŏn in South Hamgyŏng and Paegam in Ryanggang . Kilju stands at the junction of the Hamgyŏng Mountains and the Maryŏng Mountains , and its northwestern region is mountainous. The average annual temperature
2394-464: Is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens,
2527-591: Is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected
2660-450: Is pronounced as /joː/ ), io(w)an , io(w)en , ioi ( /y/ ), and i(y)ao , and they exist in Chinese loanwords. The diphthong oo is pronounced as /oː/ , and the diphthong eo is pronounced as /ɤo/ . Stress in Manchu has been described in very different ways by different scholars. According to Paul Georg von Möllendorff (1892), it was always on the last syllable. In contrast, Ivan Zakharov (1879) gives numerous specific rules: on
2793-404: Is shown here as phonemic. Early Western descriptions of Manchu phonology labeled Manchu b as "soft p", Manchu d as "soft t", and Manchu g as "soft k", whereas Manchu p was "hard p", t was "hard t", and k was "hard k". This suggests that the phonological contrast between the so-called voiced series ( b, d, j, g ) and the voiceless series ( p, t, c, k ) in Manchu as it was spoken during
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#17330860452812926-410: Is taught there as a tool for reading Qing-dynasty archival documents. In 2009 The Wall Street Journal reported that the language is offered (as an elective) in one university, one public middle school, and a few private schools. There are also other Manchu volunteers in many places of China who freely teach Manchu in the desire to rescue the language. Thousands of non-Manchu speakers have learned
3059-557: Is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism". He said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages". During the Ming dynasty , the Jurchens lived in sub-clans ( mukun or hala mukun ) of ancient clans ( hala ). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans
3192-490: Is vertically written and taken from the Mongolian script (which in turn derives from Aramaic via Uyghur and Sogdian ). Although Manchu does not have the kind of grammatical gender found in most European languages, some gendered words in Manchu are distinguished by different stem vowels (vowel inflection), as in ama , 'father', and eme , 'mother'. The Qing dynasty used various Mandarin Chinese expressions to refer to
3325-539: Is very common in modern spoken Xibe but unknown in Manchu. Since the 1980s, there have been increased efforts to revive the Manchu language. Revival movements are linked to the reconstruction of ethnic Manchu identity in the Han-dominated country. The Manchus mainly lead the revival efforts, with support from the PRC state, NGOs and international efforts. Revivalism began in the post- Mao era when non-Han ethnic expression
3458-471: The Hwadae-ri atomic weapons training facility. This was first built with Soviet assistance in 1958, and rose to international prominence when the 2006 North Korean nuclear test , 2009 North Korean nuclear test , 2013 North Korean nuclear test , and 2017 North Korean nuclear test were reported to have been held at Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site in the area of Mantapsan mountain, in the northernmost part of
3591-571: The Ili valley in Xinjiang , having been moved there by the Qianlong Emperor in 1764. Modern written Xibe is very close to Manchu, although there are slight differences in the writing system which reflect distinctive Xibe pronunciation. More significant differences exist in morphological and syntactic structure of the spoken Xibe language. For one example among many, there is a " converb " ending, - mak , that
3724-640: The Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province . They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes. The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) found allies among
3857-572: The Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1644–1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself the Later Jin , was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as the Eight Banners , and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on
3990-502: The Khitan people and Mongols , they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called beile ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkic baig or bey . Also like the Mongols and
4123-520: The Pentaglot . Among his directives were to eliminate directly borrowed loanwords from Chinese and replace them with calque translations which were put into new Manchu dictionaries. This showed in the titles of Manchu translations of Chinese works during his reign which were direct translations contrasted with Manchu books translated during the Kangxi Emperor 's reign which were Manchu transliterations of
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4256-417: The Qianlong Emperor was shocked to see a Manchu official, Guo'ermin, not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Shengjing (now Shenyang ). By the 19th century, even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu. By
4389-716: The Songhua River and Amur River . His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin. The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There
4522-466: The " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. Our gurun (tribe, state) originally had the names Manju, Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called [us] jušen . The term jušen refers to
4655-524: The " plurality of ethnic cultures within one united culture". Another reason for revivalism lay in the archives of the Qing Empire–a way to translate and resolve historical conflicts between the Manchus and the state. Lastly, the people wanted to regain their language for the rituals and communication to their ancestors–many shamans do not understand the words they use. Manchu associations can be found across
4788-530: The "seven Wuji tribes", which the Goguryeo people were not a part of. It seems by that point, the Jurchens saw only the Mohe tribes as a related people. Some western scholars consider the origin of Hanpu to be legendary in nature. Herbert Franke described the narrative provided in the History of Jin as an "ancestral legend" with a historical basis in that the Wanyan clan had absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae during
4921-607: The (Qing) dynasty (had been) unable to coerce the country's ministers and people to learn the national writing and national speech (Manchu)". Chinese fiction books were translated into Manchu. Bannermen wrote fiction in the Chinese language. Huang Taiji had Chinese books translated into Manchu. Han Chinese and Manchus helped Jesuits write and translate books into Manchu and Chinese. Manchu books were published in Beijing . The Qianlong Emperor commissioned projects such as new Manchu dictionaries, both monolingual and multilingual like
5054-587: The 10th century under the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo-drik (now Chinese : 女直 Nüzhi ). This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo , with the character 真 being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao , because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun , however, argues that this
5187-499: The 10th century. Frederick W. Mote described it as a "tribal legend" that may have born the tribe's memories. The two brothers remaining in Goryeo and Balhae may represent ancestral ties to those two peoples while Hanpu's marriage may represent the tribe's transformation from a matrilineal to patrilineal society. Hongtaiji , the Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順),
5320-471: The 1950s redistricting, is now located just across the border in what is now Kimchaek city. In addition to its airport, the county is served by the Pyongra Line railway , which stops at Kilju Chongnyon Station and connects it to Pyongyang and Rason . The city is also linked by road to Hamhung and Chongjin . A number of military facilities are known or believed to be located in Kilju. These include
5453-541: The Chinese characters. The Pentaglot was based on the Yuzhi Siti Qing Wenjian ( 御製四體清文鑑 ; "Imperially-Published Four-Script Textual Mirror of Qing"), with Uyghur added as a fifth language. The four-language version of the dictionary with Tibetan was in turn based on an earlier three-language version with Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese called the "Imperially-Published Manchu Mongol Chinese Three pronunciation explanation mirror of Qing" ( 御製滿珠蒙古漢字三合切音清文鑑 ), which
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5586-470: The Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with our gurun . Our gurun establishes the name Manju. Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations. Henceforth persons should call our gurun its original name, Manju, and not use the previous demeaning name. Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like
5719-596: The Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens. The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under
5852-532: The Heje ( Hezhen ) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south. By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since
5985-498: The History of Ming because of this. The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci 's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven". During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of
6118-567: The Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from
6251-496: The Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols . By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng . The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu . After a siege lasting about
6384-467: The Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty . The Jin went on to conquer
6517-530: The Jurchen and the Koreans. This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor . Soon after, Mentemu , chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens , defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead. Yi Seong-gye ,
6650-415: The Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River , notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid . All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics. When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of
6783-521: The Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There
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#17330860452816916-469: The Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 ( Jingkang incident ). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyöm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself
7049-417: The Manchu alphabet, but are not distinguished in the romanization. The vowel e (generally pronounced like Mandarin [ɤ] )) is pronounced as /e/ after y , as in niyengniyeri /ɲeŋɲeri/. Between n and y , i is absorbed into both consonants as /ɲ/. The relatively rare vowel transcribed ū (pronounced [ʊ] ) was usually found as a back vowel ; however, in some cases, it was found occurring along with
7182-820: The Manchu language by Russian sinologists started in the early 18th century, soon after the founding of the Russian Orthodox Mission in Beijing, to which most early Russian sinologists were connected. Illarion Kalinovich Rossokhin [ Wikidata ] (died 1761) translated a number of Manchu works, such as The history of Kangxi's conquest of the Khalkha and Oirat nomads of the Great Tartary, in five parts ( История о завоевании китайским ханом Канхием калкаского и элетского народа, кочующего в Великой Татарии, состоящая в пяти частях ), as well as some legal treatises and
7315-630: The Manchu language, such as "Qingwen" ( 清文 ) and "Qingyu" ( 清語 ) ("Qing language"). The term "national" was also applied to writing in Manchu, as in Guowen ( 國文 ), in addition to Guoyu ( 國語 ) ("national language"), which was used by previous non-Han dynasties to refer to their languages and, in modern times, to the Standard Chinese language. In the Manchu-language version of the Treaty of Nerchinsk ,
7448-476: The Ming dynasty and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors. The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan . Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea. In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post ( 奴兒干都司 ) at Telin (present-day Tyr, Russia , about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East ) in
7581-517: The Ming dynasty government. Over a period of 30 years from 1586, Nurhaci , a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor, Hong Taiji , renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals. During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above
7714-520: The Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans . The Mohe rode reindeer. There is no dated evidence of the Jurchens before the time of Wugunai (1021-74), when the Jurchens began to coalesce into a nation-like federation. According to tradition passed down via oral transmission, Wugunai was the 6th generation descendant of Hanpu ,
7847-580: The Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe , and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen but this remains conjectural. The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae . The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet , and rice in addition to hunting. Like all Tungus people ,
7980-417: The Mongolian script. The term Manchu , already in official use by the Later Jin at that time, was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people. The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name. The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Lüzhen . The variant Nrjo-tsyin (now Chinese : 女真 Nüzhen , whence English Nurchen ) appeared in
8113-442: The Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan. It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of
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#17330860452818246-696: The Northern Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing , in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River . Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181. After 1189,
8379-481: The Qing dynasty. Manchu-language texts supply information that is unavailable in Chinese, and when both Manchu and Chinese versions of a given text exist, they provide controls for understanding the Chinese. Like most Siberian languages, Manchu is an agglutinative language that demonstrates limited vowel harmony . It has been demonstrated that it is derived mainly from the Jurchen language though there are many loan words from Mongolian and Chinese . Its script
8512-406: The Turks, the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture . According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader. Unlike the Mongols, the Jurchens were a sedentary and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses. "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while
8645-404: The Wanyan, he was already 60 years old and accepted as a "wise man". He succeeded in settling a dispute between two families without resorting to violence, and as a reward, was betrothed to a worthy unmarried maiden also 60 years old. The marriage was blessed with the gift of a dark ox, which was revered in Jurchen culture, and from this union came one daughter and three sons. With this, Hanpu became
8778-639: The Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong . Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures. The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between
8911-425: The ancestors of the Manchu and ruled over the later Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . Manchu began as a primary language of the Qing dynasty Imperial court, but as Manchu officials became increasingly sinicized , many started losing the language. Trying to preserve the Manchu identity, the imperial government instituted Manchu language classes and examinations for the bannermen , offering rewards to those who excelled in
9044-419: The book Introduction to the Qing language ( 清文啟蒙 ; Cing wen ki meng bithe ), which was co-written by a Manchu named Uge. Uge gave private Manchu language classes, which were attended by his friend Chen. Chen arranged for its printing. Han Chinese at the Hanlin Academy studied the Manchu language in the Qing. The Han Chinese Hanlin graduate Qi Yunshi knew the Manchu language and wrote a book in Chinese on
9177-406: The case of dzengse (orange) (Chinese: chéngzi ) and tsun (inch) (Chinese: cùn ). In addition to the vocabulary that was borrowed from Chinese, such as the word pingguri (apple) (Chinese: píngguǒ), the Manchu language also had a large number of loanwords from other languages such as Mongolian , for example the words morin (horse) and temen (camel). A crucial feature of the Manchu language
9310-496: The chief of the Wanyan and his descendants became formal members of the Wanyan clan. Because Hanpu arrived from Goryeo, some South Korean scholars have claimed that Hanpu hailed from Goryeo. According to Alexander Kim, this cannot be easily identified as him being Korean because many Balhae people lived in Goryeo at that time. Later when Aguda appealed to the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty for support by emphasizing their common origin, he only mentioned those who descended from
9443-495: The country, including Hong Kong , and Taiwan which is now under the administration of the Republic of China. Consisting of mostly Manchus and Mongols, they act as the link between the people, their ethnic leaders and the state. NGOs provide large support through "Manchu classes". Manchu is now taught in certain primary schools as well as in universities. Heilongjiang University Manchu language research center in no.74, Xuefu Road, Harbin , listed Manchu as an academic major . It
9576-812: The county. The Musudan-ri missile facility is located in nearby Hwadae county, and a separate Scud facility has been reported in the area. Reports from defectors who lived in the area indicate that residents are suffering from radiation exposure , with high rates of cancers and birth defects being experienced by those living near the Punggye-ri Test Site. The county is divided into one town ( ŭp ), five worker's districts ( rodongjagu ), and 22 villages ( ri ). 40°57′43″N 129°20′12″E / 40.96194°N 129.33667°E / 40.96194; 129.33667 Jurchen people Jurchen ( Manchu : ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ Jušen , IPA: [dʒuʃən] ; Chinese : 女真 , Nǚzhēn [nỳ.ʈʂə́n] )
9709-472: The descendants of the Ta family of Balhae. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving
9842-504: The earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning " gold "—is derived from the "Gold River" ( Jurchen : antʃu-un ; Manchu : Aisin ) in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. The Jin dynasty captured
9975-566: The early modern era was actually one of aspiration (as shown here) or tenseness , as in Mandarin . /s/ was affricated to [ts] in some or all contexts. /tʃʰ/ , /tʃ/ , and /ʃ/ together with /s/ were palatalized before /i/ or /y/ to [tɕʰ] , [tɕ] , and [ɕ] , respectively. /kʰ/ and /k/ were backed before /a/, /ɔ/, or /ʊ/ to [qʰ] and [q] , respectively. Some scholars analyse these uvular realizations as belonging to phonemes separate from /kʰ/ and /k/ , and they were distinguished in
10108-691: The end of the 19th century the language had declined to such an extent that even at the office of the Shengjing general the only documents written in Manchu (rather than Chinese) would be the memorials wishing the emperor long life; during the same period, the archives of the Hulan banner detachment in Heilongjiang show that only 1% of the bannermen could read Manchu and no more than 0.2% could speak it. Nonetheless, as late as 1906–1907, Qing education and military officials insisted that schools teach Manchu language and that
10241-420: The first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful. The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession. They were divided in 384 guards by
10374-561: The founder of the Wanyan clan, who therefore must have lived around the year 900. Hanpu originally came from the Heishui Mohe tribe of Balhae. According to the History of Jin , when he came to the Wanyan tribe, it was for the repayment of a murder and a form of compensation. He had two brothers, one who stayed in Goryeo and the other in Balhae when he left. By the time he arrived and settled among
10507-437: The front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted. Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population. During the Qing dynasty , the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue , or soncoho ( ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ ) ( 辮子 ; biànzi ),
10640-598: The front vowel e . Much disputation exists over the exact pronunciation of ū . Erich Hauer , a German sinologist and Manchurist, proposes that it was pronounced as a front rounded vowel initially, but a back unrounded vowel medially. William Austin suggests that it was a mid-central rounded vowel. The modern Xibe pronounce it identically to u . There are altogether eighteen diphthongs and six triphthongs. The diphthongs are ai , ao , ei , eo , ia , ie , ii , io , iu , oi , oo , ua , ue , ui , uo , ūa , ūe , ūi , and ūo . The triphthongs are ioa , ioo (which
10773-433: The frontier regions and Manchu in order to be able to write and compile their writings on the region. A Manchu-language course over three years was required for the highest ranking Han degree holders from Hanlin but not all Han literati were required to study Manchu. Towards the end of the Qing it was pointed out that a lot of Bannermen themselves did not know Manchu anymore and that, in retrospect, "the founding emperors of
10906-583: The frontier regions of China by translating and using the Manchu-language sources in the Grand Secretariat 's archives. In 1740, Hanlin Academy expelled the Han Chinese Yuan Mei for not succeeding in his Manchu studies. Injišan, and Ortai, both Manchus, funded his work. The Han Chinese Yan Changming had the ability to read Tibetan , Oirat , and Mongolian. Han Chinese officials learned languages on
11039-553: The geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led
11172-426: The increased efforts to revive the Manchu language, there are many obstacles standing in the way. Even with increased awareness, many Manchus choose to give up their language, some opting to learn Mongolian instead. Manchu language is still thought of as a foreign language in a Han-dominated Chinese speaking country. Obstacles are also found when gaining recognition from the state. Resistance through censorship prevented
11305-593: The influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards. Han officials of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to the Ming: Many "Yeren Jurchens", like the Nivkh (speaking a language isolate ), Negidai , Nanai , Oroqen and many Evenks , are today considered distinct ethnic groups. The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing
11438-546: The land which is now divided between China 's Heilongjiang Province and Russia 's Primorsky Krai province . In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen ( c. 1100 BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji ( c. 500 ), and the Mohe ( c. 700 ). Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of
11571-432: The language through these measures. Despite the efforts of NGOs, they tend to lack support from high-level government and politics. The state also runs programs to revive minority cultures and languages. Deng Xiaoping promoted bilingual education. However, many programs are not suited to the ethnic culture or to passing knowledge to the younger generations. If the programs were created via "top-down political processes"
11704-423: The language was for voice commands in the Qing army, attested as late as 1878. Bilingual Chinese-Manchu inscriptions appeared on many things. A Jiangsu Han Chinese named Shen Qiliang wrote books on Manchu grammar, including Guide to Qing Books ( 清書指南 ; Manju bithe jy nan ) and Great Qing Encyclopedia ( 大清全書 ; Daicing gurun-i yooni bithe ). His father was a naval officer for the Qing and his grandfather
11837-486: The language. Chinese classics and fiction were translated into Manchu and a body of Manchu literature accumulated. As the Yongzheng Emperor (reigned 1722–1735) explained, "If some special encouragement … is not offered, the ancestral language will not be passed on and learned." Still, the use of the language among the bannermen declined throughout the 18th century. Historical records report that as early as 1776,
11970-486: The last years of the dynasty. In 1912 the Qing was overthrown, most Manchus could not speak their language, and the Beijing dialect replaced Manchu. A large number of Manchu documents remain in the archives, important for the study of Qing-era China. Today, written Manchu can still be seen on architecture inside the Forbidden City , whose historical signs are written in both Chinese and Manchu. Another limited use of
12103-765: The local government. Among the various classes of the Manchurian language and calligraphy some turned out to be a success. Beijing has the biggest and most wealthy Beijing Daxing Regency Manchu Association ( 北京大兴御苑满族联谊会 ). (pp100-101) Other support can be found internationally and on the Internet . Post- Cultural Revolution reform allowed for international studies to be done in China. The dying language and ethnic culture of Manchus gained attention, providing local support. Websites facilitate communication of language classes or articles. Younger generations also spread and promote their unique identity through popular Internet media. Despite
12236-434: The locals tend to look at them with distrust. But if they were formed via specialized governmental organizations, they fare better. According to Katarzyna Golik : In Mukden , the historical Manchurian capital, there is a Shenyang Manchu Association ( 沈阳市满族联谊会 ) which is active in promoting Manchurian culture. The Association publishes books about Manchurian folklore and history and its activities are run independently from
12369-445: The main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch’on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue,
12502-430: The majority of them were sedentary. Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency. Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus ( Jušen ) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life
12635-454: The meaning of the Chinese text". Currently, several thousand people can speak Manchu as a second language through primary education or free classes for adults offered in China. However very few native Manchu speakers remain. In what used to be Manchuria virtually no one speaks the language, the entire area having been completely sinicized . As of 2007, the last native speakers of the language were thought to be 18 octogenarian residents of
12768-449: The meanings of the names. He goes on that the Manchu translations of Chinese classics and fiction were done by experts familiar with their original meaning and with how best to express it in Manchu, such as in the Manchu translation of the Peiwen yunfu . Because Manchu is not difficult to learn, it "enables the student of Sinology to use the Manchu versions of the classics […] in order to verify
12901-495: The native name, which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk-li-tsyin ( 竹 里 真 ) and into Khitan small script as Julisen (sulaisin). The ethnonyms Sushen ( Old Chinese : */siwk-[d]i[n]-s/) and Jizhen ( 稷真 , Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/) recorded in geographical works like the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates. It
13034-416: The neutral vowels i and u are free to occur in a word with any other vowel or vowels. The form of suffixes often varies depending on the rules of vowel harmony. Certain suffixes have only one form and are not affected by vowel harmony (e.g. de ); these include the suffixes of the accusative, dative-locative and alternate ablative cases ( be , de , deri ), the suffix for the imperfect converb (- me ) and
13167-418: The officials testing soldiers' marksmanship continue to conduct an oral examination in Manchu. The use of the language for the official documents declined throughout Qing history as well. In particular, at the beginning of the dynasty, some documents on sensitive political and military issues were submitted in Manchu but not in Chinese. Later on, some Imperial records in Manchu continued to be produced until
13300-420: The one hand, he seems to say that every prosodic word lent slight prominence to the vowel of its first syllable by lengthening it, but on the other hand suffixes such as the case markers and the interrogative particles received stress, as did the perfect participle suffix and the optative suffix when these forms have future meaning. In the closely related Xibe, Jerry Norman (1974) found yet another system – stress
13433-454: The original Chinese. De Moyriac de Mailla (1669–1748) benefited from the existence of the parallel Manchu text when translating the historical compendium Tongjian Gangmu ( Tung-chien Kang-mu ; 资治通鉴纲目 ). Jean Joseph Amiot , a Jesuit scholar, consulted Manchu translations of Chinese works as well, and wrote that the Manchu language "would open an easy entrance to penetrate … into the labyrinth of Chinese literature of all ages." Study of
13566-413: The performing of Banjin festivals , a festival in recognition of a new reconstructed Manchu identity, in Beijing. Written Manchu was close to being called an " open syllable " language because the only consonant that came regularly at the end of native words was /n/ , similar to Beijing Mandarin , Northeastern Mandarin , Jilu Mandarin and Japanese . This resulted in almost all native words ending in
13699-657: The primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.) Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the Secret History as J̌ürčät (Jyrkät), and further reconstructed as * Jörcid , The modern Mongolian form is Зүрчид (Zürčid, Suurseita)) whose medial -r- does not appear in the later Jurchen Jucen or Jušen (Jussin)( Jurchen : [REDACTED] ) or Manchu Jushen (Jussin). In Manchu, this word
13832-491: The region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ( Uiju ), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain. Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . When
13965-518: The reign of Wang Geon , who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada,
14098-410: The reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region. As
14231-409: The rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in
14364-505: The term "Chinese language" ( Dulimbai gurun i bithe ) referred to all three Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, not just one language. Manchu is southern Tungusic . Whilst Northern Tungus languages such as Evenki retain traditional structure, the Chinese language is a source of major influence upon Manchu, altering its form and vocabulary. In 1635 Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchen people and Jurchen language as 'Manchu'. The Jurchen are
14497-415: The traditional Manchu hairstyle. Although their Mohe ancestors did not revere dogs, the Jurchens began to revere dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans. Pre-marital sex
14630-458: The various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin. Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In
14763-587: The various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seized Shangjing , also known as Linhuang Prefecture ( 臨潢府 ), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty. During the Jin–Song Wars , the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as " Jin " 金, which means "gold", not to be confused with
14896-451: The vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles. From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha (who himself was a Haixi Jurchen ) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along
15029-707: The village of Sanjiazi ( Manchu : ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᠪᠣᡠ᠋ , Möllendorff : ilan boo , Abkai : ilan bou ), in Fuyu County , in Qiqihar , Heilongjiang Province. A few speakers also remain in Dawujia village in Aihui District of Heihe Prefecture. The Xibe (or Sibe) are often considered to be the modern custodians of the written Manchu language. The Xibe live in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County near
15162-417: The virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during
15295-477: The vowels of Chinese loanwords. These sounds are believed to have been pronounced as such, as they never occurred in native words. Among these, was the symbol for the high unrounded vowel (customarily romanized with a y , /ɨ/) found in words such as sy (Buddhist temple) and Sycuwan (Sichuan); and the triphthong ioi which is used for the Chinese ü sound. Chinese affricates were also represented with consonant symbols that were only used with loanwords such as in
15428-484: The wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje . The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by
15561-446: The written language. It is also apparent that the open-syllable tendency of the Manchu language had been growing ever stronger for the several hundred years since written records of Manchu were first produced: consonant clusters that had appeared in older forms, such as abka and abtara-mbi ('to yell'), were gradually simplified, and the words began to be written as aga or aha (in this form meaning 'rain') and atara-mbi ('to cause
15694-492: Was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final -n (Nussin, Naisin). The form Niuche was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia , and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson . Jurchen (Jyrkin) is an anglicization of Jurčen , an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of
15827-474: Was allowed. By the 1980s, Manchus had become the second largest minority group in China . People began to reveal their ethnic identities that had been hidden due to 20th century unrests and the fall of the Qing Empire . Language revival was one method the growing numbers of Manchus used in order to reconstruct their lost ethnic identity. Language represented them and set them apart from other minority groups in
15960-556: Was an official of the Ming dynasty before rebels murdered him. Shen Qiliang himself fought against the Three Feudatories as part of the Qing army. He then started learning Manchu and writing books on Manchu grammar from Bordered Yellow Manchu Bannermen in 1677 after moving to Beijing. He translated the Hundred Family Names and Thousand Character Classic into Manchu and spent 25 years on the Manchu language. Shen wrote: "I am
16093-450: Was common. Jurchen households ( boo ) lived as families ( booigon ) consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads ( tatan ) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies ( niru ) for larger activities, such as war. The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian ( 毛怜 ) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing
16226-597: Was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains . A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it
16359-505: Was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Lim Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan , but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace. Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. it existed apart from
16492-467: Was dissolved and replaced with several small departments; Kilju County was then annexed to the newly formed Kyongsong Department. In 1896 however, the new organization was abandoned, with the departments re-organized into North and South Hamgyong provinces; Kilju was then placed into North Hamgyong, where it remains to this day. During the Japanese occupation, the county was used for manufacturing telecommunications equipment and electric insulation. Kilju
16625-609: Was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and
16758-566: Was in turn based on the "Imperially-Published Revised and Enlarged mirror of Qing" ( 御製增訂清文鑑 ) in Manchu and Chinese, which used both Manchu script to transcribe Chinese words and Chinese characters to transcribe Manchu words with fanqie . A number of European scholars in the 18th century were frustrated by the difficulties in reading Chinese, with its "complicated" writing system and classical writing style. They considered Manchu translations, or parallel Manchu versions, of many Chinese documents and literary works very helpful for understanding
16891-453: Was more often used to describe the serfs —though not slaves —of the free Manchu people, who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit (Jyrkät). According to William of Rubruck , the Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards." Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited
17024-514: Was more useful for learning the pronunciation of Chinese words than the inconsistent romanizations used at the time by the writers transcribing Chinese words in English or French books. In 1930, the German sinologist Erich Hauer argued forcibly that knowing Manchu allows the scholar to render Manchu personal and place names that have been "horribly mutilated" by their Chinese transliterations and to know
17157-459: Was no single letter in the Manchu alphabet to represent it, but rather a digraph of the letters for /n/ and /k/ . [ɲ] is usually transcribed with a digraph ni , and has thus often been considered a sequence of phonemes /nj/ rather than a phoneme of its own, though work in Tungusic historical linguistics suggests that the Manchu palatal nasal has a very long history as a single segment , and so it
17290-444: Was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society. Abduction marriages were common. Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered
17423-554: Was the source of Fra Mauro 's Zorça and Marco Polo 's Ciorcia , reflecting the Persian form of their name. Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for " reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs (urakka, uroot, urhot) of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin . ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still
17556-451: Was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens. The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops and raised animals . Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang . "建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。 The (people of) Jianzhou and Mao Lian are
17689-448: Was usually penultimate (rarely antepenultimate) in the stem and was not affected by the addition of suffixes, except for monosyllabic suffixes beginning in a voiceless sound, which were treated as part of the stem for the purposes of stress placement. Disyllabic suffixes sometimes had secondary stress of their own. Manchu absorbed a large number of non-native sounds into the language from Chinese. There were special symbols used to represent
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