Political
112-455: Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal Khomeinism , also transliterated Khumaynism , refers to the religious and political ideas of the leader of the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution , Ruhollah Khomeini . In addition, Khomeinism may also refer to the ideology of the clerical class which has ruled the Islamic Republic of Iran , founded by Khomeini. It can also be used to refer to
224-400: A religious state . Such a government would be headed by an oligarchy of Shiite clerics, who would rule (Khomeini believed) on behalf of the 12th Imam . This millenarian belief became the core rationale behind the system of Velayat-e-Faqih (guardianship of the jurist). Khomeini's ideas on Mahdism would be further developed after his death; most notably by his successor Ali Khamenei and
336-401: A "brilliant tactician," with a great "ability to improvise." Khomeini once protested the shah's enfranchisement of women, and then encouraged women to participate in his revolution and vote for his government when he needed their numbers. He once promised that clerics would hold only temporary positions in government and then allowed them to hold the most senior positions. He pledged to continue
448-445: A 1980 interview: "But as for ‘democratic,’ we won’t accept it even if you put it next to ‘Islamic.’ Even apart from this, as I said in an earlier talk, to juxtapose “democratic” and “Islamic” is an insult to Islam. Still another scholar, non-Iranian Daniel Brumberg, argues that Khomeini's statements on politics were simply not "straightforward, coherent, or consistent," and that in particular he contradicted his writings and statements on
560-507: A campaign of civil resistance that included communism , socialism , and Islamism . In August 1978, the deaths of about 400 people in the Cinema Rex fire —claimed by the opposition as having been orchestrated by Pahlavi's SAVAK —served as a catalyst for a popular revolutionary movement across Iran, and large-scale strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country for the remainder of that year. On 16 January 1979, Pahlavi went into exile as
672-529: A country experiencing relative prosperity, produced profound change at great speed, was very popular, resulted in a massive exile that characterizes a large portion of Iranian diaspora , and replaced a pro-Western secular and authoritarian monarchy with an anti-Western Islamic republic based on the concept of Velâyat-e Faqih ( Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist ), straddling between authoritarianism and totalitarianism . In addition to declaring
784-576: A coup d'état was initiated to remove Mosaddegh, with the support of the United States, the United Kingdom and most of the Shia clergy. The Shah fled to Italy when the initial coup attempt on August 15 failed, but returned after a successful second attempt on August 19. Mosaddegh was removed from power and put under house arrest, while lieutenant general Fazlollah Zahedi was appointed as new Prime Minister by
896-480: A democratic revolution. Khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him (except for the unwanted ' atheistic Marxists '), focusing on the socio-economic problems of the Shah's government (corruption and unequal income and development), while avoiding specifics among the public that might divide the factions —particularly his plan for clerical rule , which he believed most Iranians had become prejudiced against as
1008-496: A divinely-appointed line of Shia Imams descended from a cousin ( Ali ) and daughter ( Fatima ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the last of which is the 12th Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi . The God-given ( Infallible ) knowledge and sense of justice of the Imams makes them the definitive reference for (Shia) Muslims in every aspect of life, religious or otherwise, including governance. However,
1120-607: A group called "Counter Extremism Project", emphasising Khomeini's "controversial interpretation" of Shi'ism, his "rejection of Western interference and influence" in the Muslim world, authoritarian rule in Iran, his successors' support for allied militias in Lebanon, Iraq, etc. and is used in the title of a chapter by Mojtaba Mahdavi in a 2014 Cambridge University Press book ( A Critical Introduction to Khomeini ), which describes "five distinct stages" in
1232-469: A person's death. Encouraged by Khomeini (who declared that the blood of martyrs must water the "tree of Islam"), radicals pressured the mosques and moderate clergy to commemorate the deaths of the students, and used the occasion to generate protests. The informal network of mosques and bazaars, which for years had been used to carry out religious events, increasingly became consolidated as a coordinated protest organization. On 18 February, 40 days after
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#17328766504941344-526: A public announcement declaring his support for a "constitutional government," and a return to the policies of the 1906 Constitution . The Shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests and, to make matters worse, he often became indecisive during times of crisis; virtually every major decision he would make backfired on his government and further inflamed the revolutionaries. Qajar dynasty The Qajar dynasty ( Persian : دودمان قاجار , romanized : Dudemâne Ǧâjâr ; 1789–1925)
1456-610: A puppet of—a non-Muslim Western power (i.e., the United States) whose culture was affecting that of Iran. At the same time, support for the Shah may have waned among Western politicians and media—especially under the administration of U.S. President Jimmy Carter —as a result of the Shah's support for OPEC petroleum price increases earlier in the decade. When President Carter enacted a human-rights policy which said that countries guilty of human-rights violations would be deprived of American arms or aid, this helped give some Iranians
1568-566: A religious cleric who had headed one of the rebel factions. The ousting of Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran , formally marked the end of Iran's historical monarchy . Following the 1953 Iran coup , Pahlavi aligned Iran with the Western Bloc and cultivated a close relationship with the US to consolidate his power as an authoritarian ruler. Relying heavily on American support amidst the Cold War , he remained
1680-465: A result of propaganda campaign by Western imperialists . In the post-Shah era, some revolutionaries who clashed with his theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of deception, but in the meantime anti-Shah unity was maintained. Several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution. The 1971 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire at Persepolis , organized by
1792-507: A theocratic republic. Khomeini brought about a major paradigm shift in Shia Islam . He declared that Islamic jurists are the true holders of religious and political authority, who must be obeyed as "an expression of obedience to God", and whose rule has "precedence over all secondary ordinances in Islam such as prayer , fasting , and pilgrimage ". Khomeini's doctrines would make a major influence on
1904-470: Is against Islamic government) and Abdolkarim Soroush (an Iranian philosopher in exile), according to Reza Parsa writing in the state-run Aftab News . Other followers of Khomeini who maintain he did support democracy and that the Islamic Republic is democratic include Ali Khamenei , Mohammad Khatami and Morteza Motahhari . Khomeini preached for theocratic rule by jurists to his followers, but not to
2016-603: Is also a core ideological hallmark of the Basij and the IRGC institutions. Since the emergence of the 2009 Green movement , a " cult of Mahdism" has been heavily promoted by the IRGC and state-backed clergy in an attempt to deter the youth from embracing secular ideas; and it is strongly tied to the inner circle of Ali Khamenei. Mohammadi Golpayegani , chief staff of the Office of Supreme Leader backed
2128-610: Is currently headed by the eldest descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah, Sultan Mohammad Ali Mirza Qajar , while the Heir Presumptive to the Qajar throne is Mohammad Hassan Mirza II , the grandson of Mohammad Hassan Mirza , Sultan Ahmad Shah's brother and heir. Mohammad Hassan Mirza died in England in 1943, having proclaimed himself shah in exile in 1930 after the death of his brother in France. Today,
2240-426: Is essential because (he believed) it is the only form of government that protects the Muslim world from the conspiracies of colonialists who were responsible for the decline of Muslim civilization , the conservative `distortions` of Islam , and the divisions between nation-states, between Sunnis and Shiis , and between oppressors and oppressed. He argued that the colonial powers had for years sent Orientalists into
2352-462: Is not a single topic in human life for which Islam has not provided instruction and established a norm. [But] ... foreign agents have constantly insinuated that Islam has nothing to offer, that Islam consists of a few ordinances concerning menstruation and parturition ... and how being divine, no human should ever attempt to change it. ... in Islam the legislative power and competence to establish laws belongs exclusively to God Almighty. ... No one has
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#17328766504942464-555: Is the Western style,`" One explanation for this change of position is that Khomeini needed the support of the pro-democracy educated middle class to take power. Supporters maintain Khomeini simply had another definition of "democracy" than is commonly meant by the term. According to scholar Shaul Bakhash , when Khomeini told others he wanted Iran to be democratic, it's highly unlikely he meant "Western parliamentary democracy ". In drawing up
2576-507: Is the former and not the latter that the Islamic Republic of Iran "constantly reprints." Without the decrees, sermons, interviews, and political pronouncements "there would have been no Khomeinism [ideology]. Without Khomeinism there would have been no revolution. And without the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini would have been no more than a footnote to Iranian history." Outside of his doctrinal beliefs, Khomeini has also been noted for being
2688-506: The Majlis ), and approval of the first constitution. Although the constitutional revolution was successful in weakening the autocracy of the Qajar regime , it failed to provide a powerful alternative government. Therefore, in the decades following the establishment of the new parliament, a number of critical events took place. Many of these events can be viewed as a continuation of the struggle between
2800-534: The 1979 revolution , or the Islamic revolution of 1979 ( انقلاب اسلامی , Enqelâb-e Eslâmī ) was a series of events that culminated in the overthrow of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1979. The revolution led to the replacement of the Imperial State of Iran by the present-day Islamic Republic of Iran , as the monarchical government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was superseded by the theocratic Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ,
2912-465: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , claiming that it was a “prelude to the reappearance" of 12th Imam. A major aspect of Khomeini's psyche throughout his political career was the ever-present belief in the existence of plots and conspiracies being fomented by foreigners and their Iranian agents against Islam and Muslims. Abrahamian argues that this belief, shared among adherents of most political persuasions in Iran to varying degrees, can be explained by
3024-964: The British embassy to be closed in October 1952, forcing all British diplomats and agents to leave the country. Although the British were initially turned down in their request for American support by President Truman, the election of Dwight D. Eisenhower as U.S. president in November 1952 changed the American stance toward the conflict. This, paired with Cold War paranoia and fears of communist influence, contributed to American strategic interests. On 20 January 1953, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, C.I.A. Director Allen Dulles , told their British counterparts that they were ready to move against Mosaddegh. In their eyes, any country not decisively allied with
3136-620: The International Museum for Family History in Eijsden . The shah and his consort were styled Imperial Majesty . Their children were addressed as Imperial Highness , while male-line grandchildren were entitled to the lower style of Highness ; all of them bore the title of Shahzadeh or Shahzadeh Khanoum . The headship of the Imperial Family is inherited by the eldest male descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah. The Heir Presumptive
3248-680: The March 1979 Islamic Republic referendum , in which 98% approved the shift to an Islamic republic , the new government began drafting the present-day Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran ; Khomeini emerged as the Supreme Leader of Iran in December 1979. The success of the revolution was met with surprise around the world, as it was unusual. It lacked many customary causes of revolutionary sentiment, e.g. defeat in war, financial crisis, peasant rebellion , or disgruntled military. It occurred in
3360-473: The aristocracy in the city. What the Shah did not expect, however, was that the White Revolution led to new social tensions that helped create many of the problems that he was trying to avoid. The Shah's reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that posed the greatest challenges to his monarchy in the past — the intelligentsia , and the urban working class . Their resentment of
3472-429: The mostazafin (oppressed) against the mostakberin (oppressors); the foqara (poor) against the sarvatmandan (rich); the mellat-e mostazaf (oppressed nation) against hokumat-e shaytan (Satan's government); the zagheh-neshinha (slum dwellers) against the kakh-neshinha (palace dweller); the tabaqeh-e payin (lower class) against the tabaqeh-e bala (upper class); and tabaqeh-e mostamdan (needy class) against
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3584-469: The principalist cleric Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi . Yazdi called for cultivating a generation based on Mahdist ideology and values. Building on Khomeni's ideas, Ali Khamenei demarcated five stages as part of the millenarian framework: "an Islamic Revolution, an Islamic regime, an Islamic government, an Islamic society, and an Islamic civilization." The doctrine of Mahdism is taught in Islamist seminaries and it
3696-436: The tabaqeh-e a'yan (aristocratic class). In the past, such imagery would have been used by secular leftists rather than by clerical leaders." Ervand Abrahamian argues that, while these and other points demonstrate Khomeini "came to power by openly exploiting class antagonisms", at the same time "careful scrutiny" of his writing during this time show him to have been "remarkably vague" on the specifics of how he planned to help
3808-636: The " plundering " of Muslim land by foreign non-believers. This idea of rule by Islamic jurists was spread through his book Islamic Government , mosque sermons, and smuggled cassette speeches by Khomeini among his opposition network of students ( talabeh ), ex-students (able clerics such as Morteza Motahhari , Mohammad Beheshti , Mohammad-Javad Bahonar , Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani , and Mohammad Mofatteh ), and traditional businessmen ( bazaari ) inside Iran. Other opposition groups included constitutionalist liberals—the democratic, reformist Islamic Freedom Movement of Iran , headed by Mehdi Bazargan , and
3920-480: The "label of fundamentalist" applied to him in both the West and in Iran. As to how jurists should influence governance, Ayatollah Khomeini's leadership changed direction over time as his views on governance evolved. On who should rule and what should be the ultimate authority in governance: While Khomeini was keenly focused on the ulama's right to rule and the state's "moral and ideological foundation", he did not dwell on
4032-688: The "radicalization" of segments of the Twelver Shia populations of Iran , Iraq , and Lebanon , and the Iranian government's "recruitment" of Shia minorities in Afghanistan , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , and Africa . The words Khomeinist and Khomeinists, derived from Khomeinism, can also be used to describe members of Iran's clerical rulers and attempt to differentiate them from "regular" (non- Wilayat ul-Faqih supporting) Shia Muslim clerics. Under Khomeini's leadership, Iran replaced its millennia-old monarchy with
4144-462: The 1979 Iranian Revolution . "Khomeinism" was perhaps first used as the title of a book by Ervand Abrahamian ( Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic , 1993), where Abrahamian argued that it was more useful to think of Khomeini as a populist in the same vein as South American caudillos , than as the "fundamentalist" or traditionalist he was often described as in the West. It is also the title of an unsympathetic report on Khomeini's ideology from
4256-854: The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and became a national hero. The British, however, were outraged and accused him of stealing. The British unsuccessfully sought punishment from the International Court of Justice and the United Nations, sent warships to the Persian Gulf , and finally imposed a crushing embargo . Mosaddegh was unmoved by Britain's campaign against him. One European newspaper, the Frankfurter Neue Presse , reported that Mosaddegh "would rather be fried in Persian oil than make
4368-562: The East to misinterpret Islam and the Koran and that the colonial powers had conspired to undermine Islam both with religious quietism and with secular ideologies, especially socialism , liberalism , monarchism, and nationalism . He claimed that Britain had instigated the 1905 Constitutional Revolution to subvert Islam: "The Iranians who drafted the constitutional laws were receiving instructions directly from their British masters." Khomeini also held
4480-593: The Iranian constitution, political corruption, and the political oppression, torture, and killings, by the SAVAK secret police. The White Revolution was a far-reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and lasting until 1979. Mohammad Reza Shah's reform program was built especially to weaken those classes that supported the traditional system. It consisted of several elements including land reform ; sales of some state-owned factories to finance
4592-426: The Muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535." The oil boom of the 1970s produced an "alarming" increase in inflation, waste and an "accelerating gap" between the rich and poor, the city and the country, along with the presence of tens of thousands of unpopular skilled foreign workers. Many Iranians were also angered by the fact that the Shah's family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil, and
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4704-568: The National Assembly, to be known thenceforth as Reza Shah, founder of the Pahlavi dynasty . There were widespread social, economic, and political reforms introduced during his reign, a number of which led to public discontent that would provide the circumstances for the Iranian Revolution. Particularly controversial was the replacement of Islamic laws with Western ones and the forbidding of traditional Islamic clothing , separation of
4816-973: The Qom protests, demonstrations broke out in various different cities. The largest was in Tabriz , which descended into a full-scale riot. "Western" and government symbols such as cinemas, bars, state-owned banks , and police stations were set ablaze. Units of the Imperial Iranian Army were deployed to the city to restore order. The death toll, according to the government was 6, while Khomeini claimed hundreds were "martyred." Forty days later, on 29 March, demonstrations were organized in at least 55 cities, including Tehran . In an increasingly predictable pattern, deadly riots broke out in major cities, and again 40 days later, on 10 May. It led to an incident in which army commandos opened fire on Shariatmadari 's house, killing one of his students. Shariatmadari immediately made
4928-408: The Shah also grew, as they were now stripped of organizations that had represented them in the past, such as political parties, professional associations, trade unions, and independent newspapers. The land reform, instead of allying the peasants with the government, produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became loose political cannons, with no loyalty to the Shah. Many of
5040-610: The Shah clashed with the pro-Soviet Prime Minister Ahmad Qavam , the communist Tudeh Party grew in size and influence and the Iranian Army had to deal with Soviet-sponsored separatist movements in Iranian Azerbaijan and Iranian Kurdistan . From 1901 on, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (renamed the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1935), a British oil company, enjoyed a monopoly on sale and production of Iranian oil. It
5152-421: The Shah hoped to eliminate the influence of landlords and to create a new base of support among the peasants and the working class. Thus, the White Revolution in Iran was an attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns. Through land reform, the essence of the White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with the peasantry in the countryside, and hoped to sever their ties with
5264-621: The Shah of Iran for 26 years, keeping the country from swaying towards the influence of the Eastern Bloc and Soviet Union . Beginning in 1963, Pahlavi implemented widespread reforms aimed at modernizing Iran through an effort that came to be known as the White Revolution . Due to his opposition to this modernization, Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964. However, as ideological tensions persisted between Pahlavi and Khomeini, anti-government demonstrations began in October 1977, developing into
5376-502: The Shah playing the role of Husayn's foe, the hated tyrant Yazid I . Other factors include the underestimation of Khomeini's Islamist movement by both the Shah's reign—who considered them a minor threat compared to the Marxists and Islamic socialists —and by the secularist opponents of the government—who thought the Khomeinists could be sidelined. At the end of the 19th century,
5488-495: The Shah responded to the "polite reminder" of the importance of political rights by the new American president, Jimmy Carter , by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the Red Cross to visit prisons. Through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the government. Against this background a first crucial manifestation of public expression of social discontent and political protest against
5600-558: The Shah. The sovereign, who was mainly seen as a figurehead at the time, eventually managed to break free from the shackles of the Iranian elites and impose himself as an autocratic reformist ruler. Pahlavi maintained a close relationship with the U.S. government, as both regimes shared opposition to the expansion of the Soviet Union , Iran's powerful northern neighbor. Leftist and Islamist groups attacked his government (often from outside Iran as they were suppressed within) for violating
5712-463: The Shi'a clergy ( ulama ) had a significant influence on Iranian society . The clergy first showed itself to be a powerful political force in opposition to the monarchy with the 1891 Tobacco protest . On 20 March 1890, the long-standing Iranian monarch Nasir al-Din Shah granted a concession to British Major G. F. Talbot for a full monopoly over the production, sale, and export of tobacco for 50 years. At
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#17328766504945824-427: The Shia faith all spread and gained listeners, readers and supporters. Most importantly, Khomeini preached that revolt, and especially martyrdom , against injustice and tyranny was part of Shia Islam, and that Muslims should reject the influence of both liberal capitalism and communism, ideas that inspired the revolutionary slogan "Neither East, nor West – Islamic Republic!" Away from public view, Khomeini developed
5936-510: The United States was a potential enemy. Iran had immense oil wealth, a long border with the Soviet Union , and a nationalist prime minister. The prospect of a fall into communism and a "second China" (after Mao Zedong won the Chinese Civil War ) terrified the Dulles brothers. Operation Ajax was born, in which the only democratic government Iran ever had was deposed. On 15 August 1953
6048-507: The West responsible for a number of contemporary problems. He charged that colonial conspiracies kept the country poor and backward, exploited its resources, inflamed class antagonism, divided the clergy and alienated them from the masses, caused mischief among the tribes, infiltrated the universities, cultivated consumer instincts, and encouraged moral corruption, especially gambling, prostitution, drug addiction, and alcohol consumption . At least one scholar sees "far-reaching consequences" in
6160-522: The Western concepts and language borrowed in the 1906 constitution , and especially the authoritarian secularism and modernization of the Pahlavi Shahs who ruled for many decades starting in 1925. Precedents for this approach included the theory of "co-working with the just sultan" put forward by Sayyed Murtaza during the Buyid era in his work Al-Resala Al-Amal Ma'a Sultan about 1000 years ago, an idea that
6272-629: The `people love the clergy, have faith in the clergy, and want to be guided by the clergy` and that it was right that Supreme Leader oversee the work of the non-clerical officials `to make sure they don't make mistakes or go against the law and the Quran.' As the revolution was consolidated, terms like "democracy" and "liberalism" – considered praiseworthy in the West – became words of criticism, while "revolution" and "revolutionary" were terms of praise. According to Khomeini, proponents of " democracy " as well as " Islamic democracy " are misguided. He stated in
6384-623: The administration of the country calls for taxes, Islam has made the necessary provision; and if laws are needed, Islam has established them all... Everything is ready and waiting. All that remains is to draw up ministerial programs ..." In his manifest Islamic Government, Khomeini emphasized the wonder and preciousness of sharia, divine law. God, Exalted and Almighty, by means of the Most Noble Messenger (peace and blessing be upon him), sent laws that astound us with their magnitude. He instituted laws and practices for all human affairs ... There
6496-516: The belief in ever-present conspiracy. If conspiracy dominates political action then "those with views different from one's own were members of this or that foreign conspiracy. Thus political activists tended to equate competition with treason, ... One does not compromise and negotiate with spies and traitors; one locks them up or else shoots them. ... The result was detrimental for the development of political pluralism in Iran. ... Differences of opinion within organizations could not be accommodated; it
6608-555: The budding Iranian revival began to undermine the idea of Westernization as progress that was the basis of the Shah's secular reign, and to form the ideology of the 1979 revolution: Jalal Al-e-Ahmad 's idea of Gharbzadegi —that Western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated; Ali Shariati 's vision of Islam as the one true liberator of the Third World from oppressive colonialism , neo-colonialism , and capitalism ; and Morteza Motahhari 's popularized retellings of
6720-567: The cities working in the construction industry. Culturally and religiously conservative, many went on to form the core of the revolution's demonstrators and "martyrs". All Iranians were required to join and pay dues to a new political party, the Rastakhiz Party —all other parties were banned. That party's attempt to fight inflation with populist "anti- profiteering " campaigns—fining and jailing merchants for high prices – angered and politicized merchants while fueling black markets . In 1977
6832-561: The clergy during the rule of Reza Shah. However, the future Ayatollah Khomeini was a student of Sheikh Abdul Karim Ha'eri. In 1941, an invasion of allied British and Soviet troops deposed Reza Shah, who was considered friendly to Nazi Germany , and installed his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi as Shah. Iran remained under Soviet occupation until the Red Army withdrew in June 1946. The post-war years were characterized by political instability, as
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#17328766504946944-468: The constitution of his Islamic Republic, he and his supporters agreed to include Western-democratic elements, such as an elected parliament and president, but some argue he believed Islamic elements, not Western-style elected parliaments and presidents, should prevail in government. After the ratifying of the Islamic constitution he told an interviewer that the constitution in no way contradicted democracy because
7056-635: The constitutionalists and the Shahs of Persia, many of whom were backed by foreign powers against the parliament. Insecurity and chaos that were created after the Constitutional Revolution led to the rise of General Reza Khan , the commander of the elite Persian Cossack Brigade who seized power in a coup d'état in February 1921. He established a constitutional monarchy , deposing the last Qajar Shah , Ahmad Shah , in 1925 and being designated monarch by
7168-566: The conventional traditional "paternalistic" religious views on class. Since "God had created both private property and society, society should be formed of a hierarchy of mutually dependent strata ( qeshreha )." The poor should not be envious of the rich, and the rich should be grateful to God, avoid any displays of wealth and make generous charitable contributions to the poor. This changed markedly after 1970 when his political movement began to gain momentum. In his writings, Khomeini depicted society as sharply divided into two warring classes (tabaqat):
7280-475: The courage to post open letters and petitions in the hope that the repression by the government might subside. The revolution that substituted the monarchy of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi with Islam and Khomeini is credited in part to the spread of the Shi'a version of the Islamic revival . It resisted westernization and saw Ayatollah Khomeini as following in the footsteps of the Shi'a Imam Husayn ibn Ali , with
7392-651: The descendants of the Qajars often identify themselves as such and hold reunions to stay socially acquainted through the Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association , often coinciding with the annual conferences and meetings of the International Qajar Studies Association (IQSA). The Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association was founded for a third time in 2000. Two earlier family associations were stopped because of political pressure. The offices and archives of IQSA are housed at
7504-537: The destruction of Israel as a core objective, post-revolutionary Iran aimed to undermine the influence of Sunni leaders in the region by supporting Shi'ite political ascendancy and exporting Khomeinist doctrines abroad. In the aftermath of the revolution , Iran began to back Shia militancy across the region, to combat Sunni influence and establish Iranian dominance in the Arab world , ultimately aiming to achieve an Iranian-led Shia political order. Reasons advanced for
7616-436: The domination of Iran's politics by foreign powers for the past 200 years until the Islamic revolution, first by Russia and Britain, later by the United States. Foreign agents were involved in all of Iran's three military coups: 1908 [Russian], 1921 [British] and 1953 [UK and US]. In his series of speeches in which he argued that Islamic jurists should rule the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds, Khomeini explained theocratic rule
7728-676: The evolution of Khomeini's thought "beginning with political quietism and concluding with political absolutism". The title of a PhD. thesis by Mohammad Rezaie Yazdi ( Khomeinism, the Islamic Revolution and Anti Americanism ), where Yazdi "attempts to show how the Ayatullah" emphasized a clash between the United States and "Iranian national freedom and religious pride" Principlist groups Monarchist groups Monarchists Defunct At least one scholar (Ervand Abrahamian) has argued that Khomeini's "decrees, sermons, interviews, and political pronouncements" have outlasted his theological works because it
7840-591: The freedom of expression. Also in 1977, the popular and influential modernist Islamist theorist Ali Shariati died under mysterious circumstances. This both angered his followers, who considered him a martyr at the hands of SAVAK , and removed a potential revolutionary rival to Khomeini. Finally, in October Khomeini's son Mostafa died of an alleged heart attack, and his death was also blamed on SAVAK. A subsequent memorial service for Mostafa in Tehran put Khomeini back in
7952-456: The government, was attacked for its extravagance. "As the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by Islam, Iranians were not only excluded from the festivities, some were starving." Five years later, the Shah angered pious Iranian Muslims by changing the first year of the Iranian solar calendar from the Islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by Cyrus the Great . "Iran jumped overnight from
8064-667: The guerrillas did help play an important part in the final February 1979 overthrow delivering "the regime its coup de grace ." The most powerful guerrilla group—the People's Mujahedin —was leftist Islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary. Some important clergy did not follow Khomeini's lead. Popular ayatollah Mahmoud Taleghani supported the left, while perhaps the most senior and influential ayatollah in Iran— Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari —first remained aloof from politics and then came out in support of
8176-417: The ideology of velayat-e faqih ( guardianship of the jurist ) as government, that Muslims—in fact everyone—required "guardianship," in the form of rule or supervision by the leading Islamic jurist or jurists. Such rule was ultimately "more necessary even than prayer and fasting" in Islam, as it would protect Islam from deviation from traditional sharia law and in so doing eliminate poverty, injustice, and
8288-576: The importance of majlis, and theocrats on those of rule by the clergy. Over the decades since the revolution, Iran has not evolved towards a more liberal representative democratic system as some reformists and democrats had predicted, nor has theocratic rule of Islamic jurists spread to other countries as its founder had hoped. Iranian Islamic Revolution [REDACTED] Mohammad Beheshti [REDACTED] Ali Khamenei The Iranian revolution ( Persian : انقلاب ایران , Enqelâb-e Irân [ʔeɴɢeˌlɒːbe ʔiːɾɒːn] ), also known as
8400-400: The land reform; the enfranchisement of women ; nationalization of forests and pastures; formation of a literacy corps ; and the institution of profit-sharing schemes for workers in industry. The Shah pushed the White Revolution as a step toward westernization , and it was a way for him to legitimize the Pahlavi dynasty . Part of the reason for launching the White Revolution was that
8512-404: The landscape of Shia Islam; which traditionally upheld political quietism over a thousand years. Another significant revision was on Mahdism , the messianic belief in the reappearance of their Twelfth Imam and the proper way to wait for Him. Traditional Twelver theologians urged believers to wait patiently for his return, but Khomeini and his followers called upon Shia Muslims to actively pave
8624-431: The large Shia populations of Iraq and Lebanon . In the non-Muslim world, Khomeini had an impact on the West and even Western popular culture where it is said he became "the virtual face of Islam" who "inculcated fear and distrust towards Islam". Ayatollah Khomeini was a senior Islamic jurist cleric of Shia ( Twelvers ) Islam. Shia theology holds that Wilayah or Islamic leadership (political and religious) belongs to
8736-496: The last Iranian monarch, leaving his duties to Iran's Regency Council and Shapour Bakhtiar , the opposition-based prime minister . On 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned , following an invitation by the government; several million greeted him as he landed in Tehran . By 11 February, the monarchy was brought down and Khomeini assumed leadership while guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed Pahlavi loyalists in armed combat. Following
8848-454: The line between state earnings and family earnings blurred. By 1976, the Shah had accumulated upward of $ 1 billion from oil revenue; his family – including 63 princes and princesses had accumulated between $ 5 and $ 20 billion; and the family foundation controlled approximately $ 3 billion. By mid-1977 economic austerity measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected the thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants settling in
8960-467: The masses resented the increasingly corrupt government; their loyalty to the clergy, who were viewed as more concerned with the fate of the populace, remained consistent or increased. As Ervand Abrahamian pointed out: "The White Revolution had been designed to preempt a Red Revolution . Instead, it paved the way for an Islamic Revolution." In theory, oil money funneled to the elite was supposed to be used to create jobs and factories, eventually distributing
9072-657: The money, but instead the wealth tended to remain concentrated in the hands of the very few at the top. Post-revolutionary leader — Twelver Shia cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini — first rose to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the Shah and his White Revolution . Khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the Shah a "wretched, miserable man" who "embarked on the [path toward] destruction of Islam in Iran." Three days of major riots throughout Iran followed, with 15,000 dead from police fire as reported by opposition sources. However, anti-revolutionary sources conjectured that just 32 were killed. Khomeini
9184-576: The more secular National Front . They were based in the urban middle class, and wanted the Shah to adhere to the Iranian Constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy, but lacked the cohesion and organization of Khomeini's forces. Communist groups—primarily the Tudeh Party of Iran and the Fedaian guerrillas —had been weakened considerably by government repression. Despite this
9296-409: The national daily Ettela'at newspaper. Written under a pseudonym by a government agent, it denounced Khomeini as a "British agent" and a "mad Indian poet" conspiring to sell out Iran to neo-colonialists and communists . The developments initiated by seminaries in the city of Qom closing on 7 January 1978 were followed by the bazaar and seminary closing, and students rallied towards the homes of
9408-520: The opposition accusing the Shah of murdering him. The chain of events began with the death of Mostafa Khomeini , chief aide and eldest son of Ruhollah Khomeini . He mysteriously died at midnight on 23 October 1977 in Najaf, Iraq . SAVAK and the Iraqi government declared heart attack as the cause of death, though many attributed his death to SAVAK. Khomeini remained silent after the incident, while in Iran with
9520-449: The people and embodying their historical roots, future destiny, and revolutionary martyrs." Whether Khomeini's ideas are compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be democratic is disputed. Notable Iranians who believe he did not, include Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi (a senior cleric and main theorist of Iranian ultraconservatives who opposes democracy), Akbar Ganji (a pro-democracy activist and writer who
9632-416: The poor -- "especially on the question of private property". In this way, Abrahamian argues, Khomeini's "ideas, and his movement" despite being Islamic, bear a striking resemblance to populist movements in other countries—particularly those of South America such as Juan Perón and Getúlio Vargas . Like them, Khomeini led a "radical but pragmatic" protest movement "against the established order". The movement
9744-502: The popular movement and cancelled the concession. The Tobacco Protest was the first significant Iranian resistance against the Shah and foreign interests, revealing the power of the people and the ulama influence among them. The growing dissatisfaction continued until the Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament, the National Consultative Assembly (also known as
9856-490: The primacy of the rule of the jurist with repeated statements on the importance of the leading role of the parliament, such as `the Majlis heads all affairs`, and `the majlis is higher than all the positions which exist in the country.` This, according to Brumberg, has created a legacy where his followers "exploited these competing notions of authority" to advance "various agendas of their own." Reformist seizing on his statements about
9968-501: The public. He made statements before the revolution indicating support for " democracy ", but opposition to it once in power. During a pre-revolutionary meeting with Karin Samjabi in Paris in November 1978, claiming that the future government of Iran would be `democratic and Islamic`. But also told a huge crowd of Iranians a month after his return to Iran, "Do not use this term, `democratic.` That
10080-550: The regime took place in October 1977, when the German-Iranian Cultural Association in Tehran hosted a series of literature reading sessions, organized by the newly revived Iranian Writers Association and the German Goethe-Institute . In these "Ten Nights" (Dah Shab) 57 of Iran's most prominent poets and writers read their works to thousands of listeners. They demanded the end of censorship and claimed
10192-538: The religious leaders on the next day. On 9 January 1978, seminary students and other people demonstrated in the city, which was cracked down by the Shah 's security forces who shot live ammunition to disperse the crowd when the peaceful demonstration turned violent. Between 5–300 of the demonstrators were reportedly killed in the protest. 9 January 1978 (19 Dey) is regarded as a bloody day in Qom. According to Shia customs, memorial services ( chehelom ) are held 40 days after
10304-400: The revolution and its populist , nationalist , and later Shia Islamic character include: The Shah's regime was seen as an oppressive, brutal, corrupt, and lavish regime by some of the society's classes at that time. It also suffered from some basic functional failures that brought economic bottlenecks , shortages , and inflation. The Shah was perceived by many as beholden to—if not
10416-506: The right to legislate and no law may be executed except the law of the Divine Legislator ... The law of Islam, divine command, has absolute authority over all individuals and the Islamic government.` However, at least one scholar notes a number of ways that Khomeini made sharia (or at least the sharia of Usuli Shi'ism) "subordinate to the revolution". Khomeini's insistence on a religious state governed by select members of Shia clergy
10528-457: The scholars as to how Muslims should relate to those leaders. Shia jurists have tended to stick to one of three approaches to the state: cooperating with it, becoming active in politics to influence its policies, or most commonly, remaining aloof from it. For some years, Khomeini opted for the second of these three, believing Islam should encompass all aspects of life, especially the state, and disapproving of Iran's weak Qajar dynasty (1789–1925),
10640-688: The sexes , and veiling of women's faces with the niqab . Police forcibly removed and tore the chadors off women who resisted his ban on the public hijab . In 1935, dozens were killed and hundreds injured in the Goharshad Mosque rebellion . On the other hand, during the early rise of Reza Shah, Abdul-Karim Ha'eri Yazdi founded the Qom Seminary and created important changes in seminaries . However, he would avoid entering into political issues, as did other religious leaders who followed him. Hence, no widespread anti-government attempts were organized by
10752-457: The slightest concession to the British." The British considered an armed invasion, but U.K. Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided on a coup after being refused American military support by U.S. President Harry S. Truman , who sympathized with nationalist movements like Mosaddegh's and had nothing but contempt for old-style imperialists like those who ran the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Mosaddegh, however, learned of Churchill's plans and ordered
10864-559: The spotlight. By 1977, the Shah's policy of political liberalization was underway. Secular opponents of the Shah began to meet in secret to denounce the government. Led by the leftist intellectual Saeed Soltanpour , the Iranian Writers Association met at the Goethe Institute in Tehran to read anti-government poetry. Ali Shariati 's death in the United Kingdom shortly after led to another public demonstration, with
10976-415: The spread of the news came a wave of protest and mourning ceremonies in several cities. The mourning of Mostafa was given a political cast by Khomeini's political credentials, their enduring opposition to the monarchy and their exile. This dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family. On 7 January 1978, an article titled " Iran and Red and Black Colonization " appeared in
11088-530: The state's actually functioning or the "particulars" of its management. According to some scholars (Gheissari and Nasr) Khomeini never "put forward a systematic definition of the Islamic state and Islamic economics;... never described its machinery of government, instruments of control, social function, economic processes, or guiding values and principles." In his plan for Islamic Government by Islamic Jurists he wrote: "The entire system of government and administration, together with necessary laws, lies ready for you. If
11200-422: The time, the Persian tobacco industry employed over 200,000 people, so the concession represented a major blow to Persian farmers and bazaaris whose livelihoods were largely dependent on the lucrative tobacco business. The boycotts and protests against it were widespread and extensive as result of Mirza Hasan Shirazi 's fatwa (judicial decree). Within 2 years, Nasir al-Din Shah found himself powerless to stop
11312-502: The twelfth Imam disappeared into what Shia believe is " occultation " ( ghaybat ) in 939 AD and so has not been present to rule over the Muslim community for over a thousand years. In the absence of the Imam, Shia scholars/religious leaders accepted the idea of non-theocratic leaders (typically a hereditary monarch such as a sultan, king, or shah) managing political affairs, defending Shia Muslims and their territory, but no consensus emerged among
11424-608: The usage of tobacco as part of the Tobacco Protest . In 1970, Khomeini broke from this tradition, developing a fourth approach to the state, a revolutionary change in Shia Islam proclaiming that monarchy was inherently unjust, and that religious legal scholars should not just become involved in politics but rule. During this phase, the Egyptian Jihadist ideologue Sayyid Qutb was an important source of influence to Khomeini and
11536-691: The war against Iraq until its defeat and then abruptly made peace. He once said that the fact that " I have said something does not mean that I should be bound by my word. " Indeed, it is that suppleness, that ability to improvise that has outlived Khomeini and that continues to pervade the Islamic Republic, keeping it going. At least one scholar has argued that Khomeini's ability to swing from one "religiopolitical...perspective to another" has been exploited by followers to advance their various and competing agendas. In particular reformists such as Muhammad Khatami in search of more democracy and less theocracy. Another argues that Khomeini's "ideological adaptability" belie
11648-405: The way for Mahdi's global Islamic rule . Since his death, politics in the legal sphere of the Islamic Republic of Iran has been "largely defined by attempts to claim Khomeini's legacy" according to at least one scholar, and "staying faithful to his ideology has been the litmus test for all political activity" there. According to Vali Nasr , outside Iran, Khomeini's influence has been found among
11760-457: Was all too easy for leaders to expel dissidents as 'foreign agents'. Abrahamian believes that what he calls this "paranoid style" paved the way for the mass executions of 1981–82 , where "never before in Iran had firing squads executed so many in so short a time over so flimsy an accusation." Another way Khomeini's views changed direction over time was concerning political populism and relations between social classes. Before 1970, Khomeini had had
11872-605: Was an Iranian royal dynasty founded by Mohammad Khan ( r. 1789–1797 ) of the Qoyunlu clan of the Turkoman Qajar tribe . The dynasty's effective rule in Iran ended in 1925 when Iran's Majlis , convening as a constituent assembly on 12 December 1925, declared Reza Shah , a former brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade , as the new shah of Pahlavi Iran . The Qajar Imperial Family in exile
11984-522: Was closely linked to his reformulation of Twelver Shi'ite messianic beliefs on Mahdism . Traditional Twelver Shi'ite belief held that, during the occultation of the twelfth Imam when injustice reigned, Muslims should remain aloof from the corruption of politics and wait patiently for the re-emergence of al-Mahdi, the Twelfth Imam. Fundamentally countermanding this tenet, Khomeini asserted that Shias must "prepare for Mahdi’s global revolution" by establishing
12096-532: Was developed further by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi . Clerical political influence was institutionalized during the Safavid Empire about 500 years ago. In modern times the Grand Ayatollah Mirza Shirazi intervened against Nasir al-Din Shah when that Qajar monarch gave a 50-year monopoly over the distribution and exportation of tobacco to a foreign non-Muslim. Shirazi issued the famous fatwa against
12208-403: Was intellectually "flexible", emphasizing "cultural, national, and political reconstruction," not economic and social revolution." Like those movements it celebrated the oppressed poor and gave them a label -- mostazafin by Khomeini, descamisados (coatless ones) by Peron, trabalhadores by Vargas. But the actual power flowed from its leader, who was "elevated ... into a demigod towering above
12320-441: Was not of the working class and poor, but of the "propertied middle class". "The lower classes, especially the urban poor" were not so much served by his movement as mobilized by Khomeini. These movements attacked "the upper class and foreign powers," but not property rights. They preached "a return to `native roots` and eradication of `cosmopolitan ideas.` It claimed "a noncapitalist, noncommunist `third way` towards development," but
12432-423: Was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation, condemning Iran's close cooperation with Israel and its capitulations , or extension of diplomatic immunity , to American government personnel in Iran. In November 1964, Khomeini was re-arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 15 years (mostly in Najaf, Iraq ), until the revolution. In this interim period of "disaffected calm,"
12544-404: Was the most profitable British business in the world. Most Iranians lived in poverty while the wealth generated from Iranian oil played a decisive role in maintaining Britain as a preeminent global power. In 1951, Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh pledged to throw the company out of Iran, reclaim the petroleum reserves and free Iran from foreign powers. In 1952, Mosaddegh nationalized
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