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43-454: Both Khams Tibetan and Lhasa Tibetan evolve to not preserve the word-initial consonant clusters , which makes them very far from Classical Tibetan , especially when compared to the more conservative Amdo Tibetan . Also, Kham and Lhasa Tibetan evolved to be tonal , which Classical Tibetan was not. Khams Tibetan has 80% lexical similarity with Central Tibetan. Kham Tibetan is spoken in Kham , which

86-556: A lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes

129-448: A cluster of two consonants: /ŋθ/ (although it may be pronounced /ŋkθ/ instead, as ⟨ng⟩ followed by a voiceless consonant in the same syllable often does); lights with a silent digraph ⟨gh⟩ followed by a cluster ⟨t⟩ , ⟨s⟩ : /ts/ ; and compound words such as sightscreen /ˈsaɪtskriːn/ or catchphrase /ˈkætʃfreɪz/ . Not all consonant clusters are distributed equally among

172-580: A few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice . Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost

215-530: A large language family spoken throughout Mainland Southeast Asia , South Asia and East Asia . These languages are natively spoken by the majority of the population in Vietnam and Cambodia , and by minority populations scattered throughout parts of Thailand , Laos , India , Myanmar , Malaysia , Bangladesh , Nepal , and southern China . Approximately 117 million people speak an Austroasiatic language, of which more than two-thirds are Vietnamese speakers. Of

258-414: A post-coda sibilant, "s". Clusters of -ps, -ts, -ks, were then formed at the end of syllables. These clusters eventually collapsed into "-ts" or "-s", before disappearing altogether, leaving elements of diphthongisation in more modern varieties. Old Vietnamese also had a rich inventory of initial clusters, but these were slowly merged with plain initials during Middle Vietnamese, and some have developed into

301-602: A row per syllable. Finnish has initial consonant clusters natively only on South-Western dialects and on foreign loans, and only clusters of three inside the word are allowed. Most spoken languages and dialects, however, are more permissive. In Burmese , consonant clusters of only up to three consonants (the initial and two medials—two written forms of /-j-/ , /-w-/ ) at the initial onset are allowed in writing and only two (the initial and one medial) are pronounced; these clusters are restricted to certain letters. Some Burmese dialects allow for clusters of up to four consonants (with

344-711: A single language. Khamba and Tseku are more divergent, but classified with Khams by Tournadre . Several other languages are spoken by Tibetans in the Khams region: Dongwang Tibetan language and the Rgyalrong languages . The phonologies and vocabularies of the Bodgrong, Dartsendo, dGudzong, Khyungpo (Khromtshang), Lhagang Rangakha, Sangdam, Sogpho, sKobsteng, sPomtserag, Tsharethong, and Yangthang dialects of Kham Tibetan have been documented by Hiroyuki Suzuki. Other Khams Tibetan varieties include: Deng (2020) documents 1,707 words in

387-479: A stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants among the modern languages. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes , but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and

430-751: A taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family. Scholars generally date the ancestral language to c.  3000 BCE  – c.  2000 BCE with a homeland in southern China or the Mekong River valley. Sidwell (2022) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area around c.  2500 BCE  – c.  2000 BCE . Genetic and linguistic research in 2015 about ancient people in East Asia suggest an origin and homeland of Austroasiatic in today southern China or even further north. The name Austroasiatic

473-417: Is a root meaning 'to shine, to be bright' and is also present in ⟨glee⟩ , ⟨gleam⟩ , and ⟨glade⟩ . Consonant clusters can also originate from assimilation of a consonant with a vowel. In many Slavic languages, the combination mji, mje, mja etc. regularly gave mlji, mlje, mlja etc. Compare Russian zemlyá , which had this change, with Polish ziemia , which lacks

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516-948: Is almost as strict, but allows a sequence of a nasal consonant plus another consonant, as in Honshū [hoꜜɰ̃ɕɯː] (the name of the largest island of Japan). (Palatalized consonants, such as [kʲ] in Tōkyō [toːkʲoː] , are single consonants.) It also permits a syllable to end in a consonant as long as the next syllable begins with the same consonant. Standard Arabic forbids initial consonant clusters and more than two consecutive consonants in other positions, as do most other Semitic languages , although Modern Israeli Hebrew permits initial two-consonant clusters (e.g. pkak "cap"; dlaat "pumpkin"), and Moroccan Arabic , under Berber influence, allows strings of several consonants. Like most Mon–Khmer languages , Khmer permits only initial consonant clusters with up to three consonants in

559-666: Is also rare, but occurs in Russian words such as мха ( /mxa/ ). Consonant clusters at the ends of syllables are less common but follow the same principles. Clusters are more likely to begin with a liquid, approximant, or nasal and end with a fricative, affricate, or stop, such as in English "world" /wə(ɹ)ld/ . Yet again, there are exceptions, such as English "lapse" /læps/ . Austroasiatic languages The Austroasiatic languages ( / ˌ ɒ s t r oʊ . eɪ ʒ i ˈ æ t ɪ k , ˌ ɔː -/ OSS -troh-ay-zhee- AT -ik, AWSS- ) are

602-497: Is analysed as CCCCCCCCVC. Many Slavic languages may manifest almost as formidable numbers of consecutive consonants, such as in the Czech tongue twister Strč prst skrz krk ( pronounced [str̩tʃ pr̩st skr̩s kr̩k] ), meaning 'stick a finger through the neck', the Slovak words štvrť /ʃtvr̩c/ ("quarter"), and žblnknutie /ʒbl̩ŋknucɪɛ̯/ ("clunk"; "flop"), and

645-626: Is better preserved in the Katuic languages , which Sidwell has specialized in. Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia , Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands , and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh and Nepal . However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of

688-483: Is now divided between the eastern part of Tibet Autonomous Region , the southern part of Qinghai, the western part of Sichuan , and the northwestern part of Yunnan , China. Khampa Tibetan is also spoken by about 1,000 people in two enclaves in eastern Bhutan , the descendants of pastoral yak-herding communities. There are five dialects of Khams Tibetan proper: These have relatively low mutual intelligibility , but are close enough that they are usually considered

731-407: Is pronounced without the /k/ . Final clusters of four consonants, as in angsts in other dialects ( /ˈæŋsts/ ), twelfths /ˈtwɛlfθs/ , sixths /ˈsɪksθs/ , bursts /ˈbɜːrsts/ (in rhotic accents ) and glimpsed /ˈɡlɪmpst/ , are more common. Within compound words, clusters of five consonants or more are possible (if cross-syllabic clusters are accepted), as in handspring /ˈhændsprɪŋ/ and in

774-422: The ⟨lj⟩ and ⟨nj⟩ are digraphs representing single consonants: [ʎ] and [ɲ] , respectively. In Dutch , clusters of six or even seven consonants are possible (e.g. angstschreeuw ("a scream of fear"), slechtstschrijvend ("writing the worst") and zachtstschrijdend ("treading the most softly")). Some Salishan languages exhibit long words with no vowels at all, such as

817-833: The Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995). Diffloth 's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue . Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact . Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find

860-544: The Nuxálk word /xɬpʼχʷɬtʰɬpʰɬːskʷʰt͡sʼ/ : he had had in his possession a bunchberry plant . It is extremely difficult to accurately classify which of these consonants may be acting as the syllable nucleus, and these languages challenge classical notions of exactly what constitutes a syllable . The same problem is encountered in the Northern Berber languages . There has been a trend to reduce and simplify consonant clusters in

903-613: The Slovene word skrbstvo /skrbstʋo/ ("welfare"). However, the liquid consonants /r/ and /l/ can form syllable nuclei in West and South Slavic languages and behave phonologically as vowels in this case. An example of a true initial cluster is the Polish word wszczniesz ( /fʂt͡ʂɲɛʂ/ ("you will initiate"). In the Serbo-Croatian word opskrbljivanje /ɔpskr̩bʎiʋaɲɛ/ ("victualling")

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946-654: The Austroasiatic languages, only Vietnamese , Khmer , and Mon have lengthy, established presences in the historical record. Only two are presently considered to be the national languages of sovereign states: Vietnamese in Vietnam, and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand, while the Wa language is a "recognized national language" in

989-1118: The Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , such as Chinese and Vietnamese . Old Chinese was known to contain additional medials such as /r/ and/or /l/ , which yielded retroflexion in Middle Chinese and today's Mandarin Chinese . The word 江 , read /tɕiɑŋ˥/ in Mandarin and /kɔːŋ˥⁻˥˧/ in Cantonese , is reconstructed as *klong or *krung in Old Chinese by Sinologists like Zhengzhang Shangfang , William H. Baxter , and Laurent Sagart . Additionally, initial clusters such as "tk" and "sn" were analysed in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, and some were developed as palatalised sibilants . Similarly, in Thai , words with initial consonant clusters are commonly reduced in colloquial speech to pronounce only

1032-468: The SSP such as Proto-Indo-European /st/ and /spl/ (which many of its descendants have, including English). Certain consonants are more or less likely to appear in consonant clusters, especially in certain positions. The Tsou language of Taiwan has initial clusters such as /tf/ , which doesn't violate the SSP, but nonetheless is unusual in having the labio-dental /f/ in the second position. The cluster /mx/

1075-451: The Yorkshire place-name of Hampsthwaite /hæmpsθweɪt/ . It is important to distinguish clusters and digraphs . Clusters are made of two or more consonant sounds , while a digraph is a group of two consonant letters standing for a single sound. For example, in the word ship , the two letters of the digraph ⟨sh⟩ together represent the single consonant [ʃ] . Conversely,

1118-760: The addition of the /-l-/ medial, which can combine with the above-mentioned medials). At the other end of the scale, the Kartvelian languages of Georgia are drastically more permissive of consonant clustering. Clusters in Georgian of four, five or six consonants are not unusual—for instance, /brtʼqʼɛli/ ( flat ), /mt͡sʼvrtnɛli/ ( trainer ) and /prt͡skvna/ ( peeling )—and if grammatical affixes are used, it allows an eight-consonant cluster: /ɡvbrdɣvnis/ ( he's plucking us ), /gvprt͡skvni/ ( you peel us ). Consonants cannot appear as syllable nuclei in Georgian, so this syllable

1161-436: The change, both from Proto-Balto-Slavic *źemē. See Proto-Slavic language and History of Proto-Slavic for more information about this change. All languages differ in syllable structure and cluster template. A loanword from Adyghe in the extinct Ubykh language , psta ('to well up'), violates Ubykh's limit of two initial consonants. The English words sphere /ˈsfɪər/ and sphinx /ˈsfɪŋks/ , Greek loanwords, break

1204-535: The conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that

1247-590: The de facto autonomous Wa State within Myanmar. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India . The remainder of the family's languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status. Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen , which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer, and Munda . However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic ), while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as

1290-653: The families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth),

1333-443: The following three Khams Tibetan dialects: Consonant cluster In linguistics , a consonant cluster , consonant sequence or consonant compound , is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel . In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits . In the education field it is variously called a consonant cluster or a consonant blend . Some linguists argue that

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1376-523: The initial consonant, such as the pronunciation of the word ครับ reducing from /kʰrap̚˦˥/ to /kʰap̚˦˥/ . Another element of consonant clusters in Old Chinese was analysed in coda and post-coda position. Some "departing tone" syllables have cognates in the "entering tone" syllables, which feature a -p, -t, -k in Middle Chinese and Southern Chinese varieties. The departing tone was analysed to feature

1419-505: The internal (branching) structure below. Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: Remo Savara Kharia – Juang Korku Kherwarian Khmuic Pakanic Palaungic Khasian Vietic Katuic Bahnaric Khmer Pearic Nicobarese Aslian Monic Or in more detail, Paul Sidwell (2009), in

1462-608: The language. Other factors that affect clusters when loaned to other languages include speech rate, articulatory factors, and speech perceptivity. Bayley has added that social factors such as age, gender, and geographical locations of speakers can determine clusters when they are loaned crosslinguistically. In English , the longest possible initial cluster is three consonants, as in split /ˈsplɪt/ , strudel /ˈstruːdəl/ , strengths /ˈstrɛŋkθs/ , and "squirrel" /ˈskwɪrəl/ , all beginning with /s/ or /ʃ/ , containing /p/ , /t/ , or /k/ , and ending with /l/ , /r/ , or /w/ ;

1505-536: The languages of the world. Consonant clusters have a tendency to fall under patterns such as the sonority sequencing principle (SSP); the closer a consonant in a cluster is to the syllable's vowel, the more sonorous the consonant is. Among the most common types of clusters are initial stop- liquid sequences, such as in Thai (e.g. /pʰl/ , /tr/ , and /kl/ ). Other common ones include initial stop-approximant (e.g. Thai /kw/ ) and initial fricative-liquid (e.g. English /sl/ ) sequences. More rare are sequences which defy

1548-514: The letter ⟨x⟩ can produce the consonant clusters /ks/ (annex), /gz/ (exist), /kʃ/ (sexual), or /gʒ/ (some pronunciations of "luxury"). It is worth noting that ⟨x⟩ often produces sounds in two different syllables (following the general principle of saturating the subsequent syllable before assigning sounds to the preceding syllable). Also note a combination digraph and cluster as seen in length with two digraphs ⟨ng⟩ , ⟨th⟩ representing

1591-407: The longest possible final cluster is five consonants, as in angsts ( /ˈæŋksts/ ), though this is rare (perhaps owing to being derived from a recent German loanword ). However, the /k/ in angsts may also be considered epenthetic ; for many speakers , nasal-sibilant sequences in the coda require insertion of a voiceless stop homorganic to the nasal. For speakers without this feature, the word

1634-432: The palatal nasal. Some consonant clusters originate from the loss of a vowel in between two consonants, usually (but not always) due to vowel reduction caused by lack of stress. This is also the origin of most consonant clusters in English, some of which go back to Proto-Indo-European times. For example, ⟨glow⟩ comes from Proto-Germanic *glo-, which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *gʰel-ó, where *gʰel-

1677-490: The reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto 's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary . Little work has been done on the Munda languages , which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for *ʄ . *ʄ

1720-411: The register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis . Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure. Much work has been done on

1763-637: The rule that two fricatives may not appear adjacently word-initially. Some English words, including thrash, three, throat, and throw, start with the voiceless dental fricative /θ/, the liquid /r/, or the /r/ cluster (/θ/+/r/). This cluster example in Proto-Germanic has a counterpart in which /θ/ was followed by /l/. In early North and West Germanic, the /l/ cluster disappeared. This suggests that clusters are affected as words are loaned to other languages. The examples show that every language has syllable preference based on syllable structure and segment harmony of

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1806-798: The term can be properly applied only to those consonant clusters that occur within one syllable . Others claim that the concept is more useful when it includes consonant sequences across syllable boundaries. According to the former definition, the longest consonant clusters in the word extra would be /ks/ and /tr/ , whereas the latter allows /kstr/ , which is phonetically [kst̠ɹ̠̊˔ʷ] in some accents. Each language has an associated set of phonotactic constraints . Languages' phonotactics differ as to what consonant clusters they permit. Many languages are more restrictive than English in terms of consonant clusters, and some forbid consonant clusters entirely. For example, Hawaiian , like most Malayo-Polynesian languages, forbid consonant clusters entirely. Japanese

1849-667: Was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt ( German : austroasiatisch ) based on auster , the Latin word for "South" (but idiosyncratically used by Schmidt to refer to the southeast), and "Asia". Despite the literal meaning of its name, only three Austroasiatic branches are actually spoken in South Asia: Khasic , Munda , and Nicobarese . Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by

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