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100-417: Rhonda Firestack-Harvey, her husband Larry Harvey, her son Rolland Gregg and his wife Michelle Gregg, and Jason Zucker were growing cannabis on their 33-acre property near the town of Kettle Falls. The property was marked with a large green cross visible from the air, and consisted of an outdoor garden containing either 74 plants or 68 plants. The defendants had state authorization to grow 15 plants each, and

200-416: A chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. The first genome sequence of Cannabis , which is estimated to be 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists. The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family ( Urticaceae ) or mulberry family ( Moraceae ), and later, along with the genus Humulus ( hops ), in

300-494: A genetic analysis of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa , C. indica , and (tentatively) C. ruderalis . Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from

400-533: A four group division: In 1785, evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis , which he named Cannabis indica Lam. Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on morphological aspects (trichomes, leaf shape) and geographic localization of plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa , but greater utility as an inebriant . Also, C. indica

500-521: A hashish user in the "tekethes", as well as about life as refugees, society's unfairness, lack of financial opportunities, prejudice against the refugees, and the deceit of lovers and others in the community. The "tekethes" were closed down in the 1930s by the Greek police and the "rembetes" were jailed and ostracized. In succeeding decades, there has been a strong 20+ year resurgence in Greece of "rembetika" music with

600-1083: A high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars. They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus consists of a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se . An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm . The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis . C. sativa contains fiber and seed landraces, and feral populations, derived from Europe, Central Asia, and Turkey . Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica . In 2005,

700-417: A large number of chemicals as part of their defense against herbivory . One group of these is called cannabinoids , which induce mental and physical effects when consumed . Cannabinoids, terpenes , terpenoids , and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants. Cannabis , like many organisms, is diploid , having

800-633: A long social tradition in the production of hashish, known locally as charas . The first attestation of the term "hashish" is in a pamphlet published in Cairo in 1123 CE, accusing Nizari Muslims of being "hashish-eaters". The cult of Nizari militants which emerged after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate is commonly called the sect of the Assassins —a corruption of hashishin , Arabic for "hashish-smokers." The 13th-century jurist Ibn Taymiyyah prohibited

900-458: A mature female plant contain the most trichomes, though trichomes are also found on other parts of the plant. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce large amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen (vendors often use the euphemism "pollen catchers" to describe screened kief -grinders in order to skirt paraphernalia-selling laws), are separated from

1000-576: A maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant , this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern (which varies slightly among varieties) that allows for easy identification of Cannabis leaves from unrelated species with similar leaves. As

1100-470: A mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa. The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus 's reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths. His ( c.  440 BCE ) Histories records, "The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under

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1200-492: A noticeable decrease reported in 2005 according to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Morocco has been the major source, however lately there has been a shift in the market and Afghanistan has been named the major producer of Hashish. Even though a drop in usage and production has been reported, Morocco produced around 6600 tonnes of resin in 2005. As 641 tonnes of hashish were consumed in

1300-423: A pipe, bong , vaporizer or joints , where it is often mixed with tobacco , as pure hashish will burn poorly alone. THC has a low water solubility therefore it is most effective when ingested alongside a fatty meal or snack. Not all hashish can be consumed orally as some is not decarboxylated during manufacture. Generally the methods are similar to overall cannabis consumption . As hashish’s active ingredient

1400-465: A recreational drug known as marijuana or weed . Various cannabis strains have been bred, often selectively to produce high or low levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a cannabinoid and the plant's principal psychoactive constituent . Compounds such as hashish and hash oil are extracted from the plant. Cannabis is a Scythian word. The ancient Greeks learned of the use of cannabis by observing Scythian funerals, during which cannabis

1500-637: A separate family, the hemp family (Cannabaceae sensu stricto ). Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the former family Celtidaceae, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic family, the Cannabaceae sensu lato . Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species , subspecies , or varieties : Cannabis plants produce

1600-739: A subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species . One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups." Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species. Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis , and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile. However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as

1700-522: A taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies (hemp or drug; based on THC and CBD levels) and two varieties in each (domesticated or wild). The framework is thus: This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters. Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in

1800-590: A three species system, independently reinforced by Schultes et al (1975) and Emboden (1974): C. sativa , C. indica and C. ruderalis. In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex poly-species classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split

1900-450: A unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the "high" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC

2000-764: A very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious", and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi 枲 "male Cannabis " and fu 莩 (or ju 苴 ) "female Cannabis ". Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles , and female flowers are borne on racemes . Many monoecious varieties have also been described, in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers. (Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites", true hermaphrodites – which are less common in Cannabis – bear staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on

2100-404: Is THC, it has the same effects as cannabis. The onset is felt within 15 minutes when smoking, and about 30 to 60 minutes when eaten. Common effects include: Side effects with overdose may include anxiety , paranoia and panic . The sticky resins of the fresh flowering female cannabis plant are collected. Traditionally this was, and still is, done in remote locations by pressing or rubbing

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2200-446: Is also known as hemp , although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre , hemp seeds and their oils , hemp leaves for use as vegetables and as juice . Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fibre. Cannabis also has a long history of being used for medicinal purposes , and as

2300-412: Is believed that the psychotropic effects of hashish are therefore more subtle, and sedative . In a study conducted in 2014 by Jean-Jaques Filippi, Marie Marchini, Céline Charvoz, Laurence Dujourdy and Nicolas Baldovini ( Multidimensional analysis of cannabis volatile constituents: Identification of 5,5-dimethyl-1-vinylbicyclo[2.1.1]hexane as a volatile marker of hashish, the resin of Cannabis sativa L. )

2400-409: Is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, but in Cannabis this originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of the second notch down. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes

2500-516: Is consumed plain or mixed with tobacco . It has a long history of use in countries such as Afghanistan , India , Pakistan , Iran , Iraq , Lebanon , Morocco and Egypt . Hashish consumption is also popular in Europe. In the United States, dried flowers or concentrates are more popular, and hash has seen a relative decrease in popularity following changes in laws that have indirectly allowed for

2600-481: Is created by pressing Cannabis Flower, Dry sift, or Ice water hash in between parchment paper using a pneumatic or hydraulic press with heated plates to create force and pressure to expel the oil from the product. The moisture present in the flower, Dry Sift, or ice water hash will create steam pressure and force the oil from the source creating a solventless hash product. Tiny pieces of leaf matter may be accidentally or even purposely added; adulterants introduced when

2700-488: Is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors. Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects. It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment. A polymerase chain reaction -based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed. Cannabis plants produce

2800-507: Is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch, and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch, as alternative names. In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav. Vavilov, in 1931, proposed

2900-421: Is more commonly referred to as "honey oil." This oil is not really hashish, as the latter name covers trichomes that are extracted by sieving. This leaves most of the glands intact. Morocco has been the major hashish producer globally with €10.8 billion earned from Moroccan resin in 2004, but some so-called "Moroccan" may actually be European-made. The income for the farmers was around €325 million in 2005. While

3000-400: Is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype . Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of

3100-475: Is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination. Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis

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3200-848: Is now regarded as the biggest producer of higher quality hashish. Since then, hashish quality in Europe has increased while its prices have remained stable, with an exception of the COVID-19 pandemic , where the cannabis street prices surged due to various national lockdowns. Hashish remains in high demand in most of the world while quality continues to increase, due to many Moroccan and western farmers in Morocco and other hash producing countries using more advanced cultivation methods as well as cultivating further developed cannabis strains which increases yields greatly, as well as improving resin quality with higher ratios of psychoactive ingredients (THC). A tastier, smoother and more aromatic terpenes and flavanoids profile

3300-401: Is possibly as a result of inbreeding . Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis . Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp , it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present. At the time,

3400-627: Is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD. Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant. Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate,

3500-546: Is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently. Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis . Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type". The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present

3600-702: Is seen as an indicator of a significant rise in hashish quality in more recent years. Hashish production in Spain has also become more popular and is on the rise, however the demand for relatively cheap and high quality Moroccan hash is still extremely high. Changes to regulations around the world have contributed greatly to more and more countries becoming legitimate hashish producing regions, with countries like Spain effecting more lenient laws on cannabis products such as hashish. Washington State followed by Colorado started regulating cultivation, manufacturing and distribution of cannabis and cannabis derived products such as hashish in

3700-525: Is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in Central Asia . This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" strains from wide-leafed "indica" strains. McPartland's review finds the Schultes taxonomy inconsistent with prior work (protologs) and partly responsible for

3800-557: Is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically. More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors have used random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and amplified fragment length polymorphism . Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating, It

3900-698: Is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia. Mapping the morphological concepts to scientific names in the Small 1976 framework, "Sativa" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica , "Indica" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. i. kafiristanica (also known as afghanica ), and "Ruderalis", being lower in THC,

4000-754: Is the one that can fall into C. sativa subsp. sativa . The three names fit in Schultes's framework better, if one overlooks its inconsistencies with prior work. Definitions of the three terms using factors other than morphology produces different, often conflicting results. Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica", "mostly indica", "indica/sativa", "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa". These categories are highly arbitrary, however: one "AK-47" hybrid strain has received both "Best Sativa" and "Best Indica" awards. Cannabis likely split from its closest relative, Humulus (hops), during

4100-455: The United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa , and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution

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4200-497: The "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. This classification was supported by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (in 1807), Lindley (in 1838) and De Candollee (in 1867). These first classification attempts resulted in

4300-481: The 1860 book Les paradis artificiels , about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. At around the same time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book The Hasheesh Eater about his youthful experiences, both positive and negative, with the drug. Hashish was also mentioned and used as an anaesthetic in Germany in 1869. It was imported in great quantities especially from India where it

4400-523: The 1960s, where the cannabis plant was widely available. Before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Trail , only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco. However, since the 2000s there has been a dramatic shift in the market due to an increase of homegrown cannabis production. While Morocco held a quasi-monopoly on hashish in the 1990s with the 250-gram (8.8 oz) so-called "soap bar" blocks, which were of low quality, Afghanistan

4500-456: The 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa , C. indica , and C. ruderalis. For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species. According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica

4600-569: The EU in 2013, the European market is currently the world's largest and most profitable. Therefore, many players are involved in the business, including organised crime groups. The largest cannabis resin seizures in Europe happen in Portugal, due to its proximity to Northern Africa. The 1990s "soap bars" disappeared and the physical shapes of hashish changed to melon shaped, tablets or olive shaped pellets. Overall

4700-605: The East. He particularly mentioned the Egyptian hashish. He said, "Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names. The first by the Egyptians is called Assis (Hashish (Arab.)), which is the poulder of Hemp, or of Hemp leaves, which is water made in paste or dough, they would eat five pieces, (each) as big as a Chestnut (or larger); This is used by

4800-462: The Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation. It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species. The genus Cannabis was first classified using

4900-565: The Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper. Cannabinol (CBN) was the first compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940, followed by some of

5000-446: The United States, followed by many other places in the US (such as Humboldt, California), and around the world. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction ( EMCDDA ), Western Europe is the biggest market for cannabis resin with 70% of global seizures. The European hashish market is changing though: Cannabis cultivation increased throughout the 1990s until 2004, with

5100-549: The XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925. Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation, and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. Dioecy

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5200-424: The bottom of the ice-water mixture following agitation, while lighter pieces of leaves and stems tend to float. The ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material. With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and can easily be separated. This allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without

5300-467: The choice to use the term "Indian hemp" (linked to the plant's history in India), hence naming the species as indica. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In

5400-531: The common people, because it is of a small price, and it is no wonder, that such vertue proceedeth from the Hempe, for that according to Galens opinion, Hempe excessively filleth the head." Hashish arrived in Europe from the East during the 18th century, and is first mentioned scientifically by Gmelin in 1777. The Napoleonic campaigns introduced French troops to hashish in Egypt and the first description of its useful stems

5500-470: The cultivar. Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops, but sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, which

5600-464: The development and increased availability of cannabis extracts that are more potent than traditional hashish, although regional differences in product preferences exist. Like many recreational drugs, multiple synonyms and alternative names for hashish exist, and vary greatly depending on the country and native language. Hashish is a cannabis concentrate product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from

5700-410: The dried plant material, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers. This technique is known as "drysifting". The resulting powder, referred to as "kief" or "drysift", is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish; if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable. When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent and will start to melt at

5800-596: The early Miocene , around 19.6 million years ago. Cannabis was widely distributed over Asia by the Late Pleistocene. The oldest known Cannabis in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years ago. Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes. According to genetic and archaeological evidence, cannabis was first domesticated about 12,000 years ago in East Asia during the early Neolithic period. The use of cannabis as

5900-527: The early 20th century, the single-species concept (monotypic classification) was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union , where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias , and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations. In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia

6000-518: The end of the 19th century. Rare applications included stomach ache, depression, diarrhea, diminished appetite, pruritus, hemorrhage, Basedow syndrome and malaria. The use was later prohibited worldwide as the use as a medicine was made impossible by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs . At the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of hashish in Europe came from Kashmir and other parts of India, Afghanistan, as well as Greece, Syria, Nepal, Lebanon, and Turkey. Larger markets developed in

6100-534: The felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Greek vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy." Classical Greeks and Romans also used cannabis. In China, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the Shennong Bencaojing (3rd century AD). Cannabis smoke was inhaled by Daoists , who burned it in incense burners. In

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6200-421: The first preclinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo. Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally . Hashish Hashish ( / h ə ˈ ʃ iː ʃ / ; from Arabic ḥašiš  'hay'), usually abbreviated as hash , is a compressed form of powdered marijuana . As a psychoactive substance , it

6300-411: The flowering plant between two hands and then forming the sticky resins into a small ball of hashish called charas . This method produces the highest amount of cannabinoids (THC content up to 60%) without chemical solvents or distillation. The best quality charas is produced in Central Asia , and sold in sausage-like shapes. Mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from

6400-426: The fruit is an achene . Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants , with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis ), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be day-neutral . Cannabis is predominantly dioecious , having imperfect flowers , with staminate "male" and pistillate "female" flowers occurring on separate plants. "At

6500-441: The general trend of domestically grown cannabis displacing the imported resin leads to a market reaction of potency changes while the prices remain stable while soap-bar potency increased from 8% to up to 20.7% in 2014. Generally, more resin than herb is consumed in Europe. Hashish is made from cannabinoid -rich glandular hairs known as trichomes , as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of

6600-434: The genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: Cannabis sativa , C. indica , and C. ruderalis . Alternatively, C. ruderalis may be included within C. sativa , or all three may be treated as subspecies of C. sativa , or C. sativa may be accepted as a single undivided species. The genus is widely accepted as being indigenous to and originating from Asia . The plant

6700-705: The hashish is being produced will reduce the purity of the material and often resulting in green finished product. If hash is particularly sticky, this can mean that additional oils have been added to increase the overall weight of the product. The most common quality indicator is the smell. High-quality hash will smell fragrant and aromatic, whereas hash of low quality may have a distinct mouldy or musty aroma. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of hashish comes in wide ranges from almost none to 65% and that of hash oil from 30% to 90%. Hashish can also contain appreciable amounts of CBD, CBN and also contain trace amounts of other cannabinoids As mentioned above, there has been

6800-714: The late 1960s and early 1970s when most of the hashish was imported from Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Greece, Hashish was prevalent in the early decades of the 20th century, and although locally produced for hundreds of years prior, it reached its peak with the coming of two and a half million Greek refugees, expelled from Turkey following the disastrous 1919-21 war. Many of these refugees had habitually smoked hashish in Turkey, using waterpipes, (hookas) called "arghilethes," and due to extreme poverty upon arriving in Greece, and living in overcrowded and poor refugee communities, many hashish dens, called "tekethes" sprung up in Greece's larger cities,

6900-429: The legal authority and facts cited by Appellants on the above-stated issue clearly shows the United States was not authorized to spend money on the continued prosecution of the defendants after December 2014. This includes spending money on the present appeal." Cannabis Cannabis ( / ˈ k æ n ə b ɪ s / ) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae . The number of species within

7000-528: The mid Oligocene , around 27.8 million years ago according to molecular clock estimates. The centre of origin of Cannabis is likely in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau . The pollen of Humulus and Cannabis are very similar and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen thought to be from Cannabis is from Ningxia , China, on the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the Loess Plateau , dating to

7100-569: The other defendants just prior to trial and was sentenced to 16 months of prison time, a reduction from a potential 15 years if convicted on all charges. The remaining defendants faced charges of growing, possessing and distributing cannabis, as well as firearms charges for guns found in their house that adjoined the grow. During the course of the trial, the defense was prohibited from talking about medical marijuana or adherence to state rules regulating it. The remaining three defendants were acquitted of all charges except growing marijuana, and sentencing

7200-490: The other putative taxa. A 2020 analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms reports five clusters of cannabis , roughly corresponding to hemps (including folk "Ruderalis") folk "Indica" and folk "Sativa". Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the University of British Columbia found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa,

7300-454: The overall number of plants and areas shrank in size, the introduction of more potent hybrid plants produced a high resin rate. The amount of resin produced is estimated to range between 3,800 and 9,500 tonnes in 2005. The largest producer today is Afghanistan, however studies suggest there is a "hashish revival" in Morocco. Solventless Rosin Method was discovered by Phil Salazar in 2015. Rosin

7400-402: The percentage of hashish in cannabis end product seizures was at 18%. With the strength of unprocessed cannabis flowers having increased greatly in recent years—with flowers containing upwards of 25% THC by weight—the strength of hashish produced today and in the future is likely to be far more potent than in these older records. The consistency and appearance of hashish is highly dependent on

7500-660: The plant through various methods. Hashish samples from India, Lebanon and Morocco confiscated in Europe and Israel in 2005 contained all appreciable amounts of cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), in addition to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In some samples the CBD-content was significantly higher than the THC-content. The simultaneous occurrence of these three cannabinoids constitute the typical, chemical profile of hashish consumed in Europe and Northern Africa. In comparison, most high-potency marijuana products contain only THC. It

7600-461: The plant. It is defined by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV) as "the separated resin, whether crude or purified, obtained from the cannabis plant". The resin contains ingredients such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids —but often in higher concentrations than the unsifted or unprocessed cannabis flower. Purities of confiscated hashish in Europe (2011) range between 3% and 15%. Between 2000 and 2005,

7700-405: The plants in the first filial (F 1 ) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production. Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been

7800-462: The point of human contact. Ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes. Newer techniques have been developed such as heat and pressure separations, static-electricity sieving or acoustical dry sieving. Trichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures. After plant material has been agitated in an icy slush, separated trichomes are often dense enough to sink to

7900-648: The popular usage. Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics . Several studies of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis , primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting

8000-399: The port city of Piraeus, and the northern city of Thessaloniki (where many refugees lived.) This gave rise to a substantial urban underclass and sub culture of hashish smokers called "hasiklithes," and a musical genre " rembetika " (oriental sounding), "urban blues" played on the bouzouki, tzoura, and oriental instruments such as the baglama, outi (oud) and kanonaki (kanun) that spoke of life as

8100-403: The process used and the amount of leftover plant material (e.g. chlorophyll). It is typically solid, though its consistency ranges from brittle to malleable. It is most commonly light or dark brown in color, though may appear transparent, yellow, black, or red. Hashish has been consumed for many centuries, though there is no clear evidence as to its first appearance. North India and Nepal have

8200-499: The researchers linked the characteristic flavour of hashish with a rearrangement of myrcene caused during the process of manufacture. Depending on the production process, the product can be contaminated with different amounts of dirt and plant fragments, varying greatly in terms of appearance, texture, odour and potency. Also, adulterants may be added in order to increase weight or modify appearance. Hashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking. When smoked, it may be smoked in

8300-529: The rise of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains among private-sector producers. The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis . Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range , aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa"

8400-413: The same plant.) Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread. Many populations have been described as sexually labile. As a result of intensive selection in cultivation , Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in

8500-538: The same time with Jacques-Joseph Moreau being convinced that it is the supreme medicament for use in psychiatry. In the 19th century, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles. Most famously, the Club des Hashischins was a Parisian club dedicated to the consumption of hashish and other drugs; its members included writers Théophile Gautier , Dr. Moreau de Tours , Victor Hugo , Alexandre Dumas , Charles Baudelaire and Honoré de Balzac . Baudelaire later wrote

8600-429: The same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996. Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome

8700-534: The songs of the rembetes and hasiklithes being contuinually performed publicly by many including the younger generation, as a form of cultural heritage, and have gained respectability and popularity for their frank expressions of that period, and Greek society in general. Due to disruptive conflicts in the regions, Morocco took over and was the sufficient exporter until lately. It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during

8800-491: The total number of plants was under the 75 allowed by the Washington State law. All five defendants had doctors' letters recommending marijuana for the treatment of various conditions, including gout, anorexia, rheumatoid arthritis, degenerative disc disease and chronic back pain from a broken back. This garden was raided by the federal government in 2012, and federal charges were laid against this group. When Larry Harvey

8900-483: The two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta . However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties. Zhukovski, in 1950, also proposed a two-species system, but with C. sativa L. and C. ruderalis . In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in

9000-574: The use of hashish; he mentioned that it was introduced to Levant with the Mongol invasion (throughout the 13th century). Smoking did not become common in the Old World until after the introduction of tobacco; until the 1500s, hashish was consumed as an edible in the Muslim world. In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on "Bangue" ( bhang ) in his historic work documenting his journeys in

9100-586: The use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish. Chemical separation methods generally use a solvent such as ethanol , butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost. The solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off (purged) leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, " hash oil ", or just "oil". Honey oil still contains waxes and essential oils and can be further purified by vacuum distillation to yield "red oil". The product of chemical separations

9200-456: The vein will pass tangentially to the notch, but often will pass by at a small distance; when the latter happens a spur vein (or occasionally two) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. Tiny samples of Cannabis also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, requiring special equipment and expertise. All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated and

9300-409: Was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity. The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear. In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published

9400-595: Was called charas. However, there were also people who did not deem cannabis as harmless. Between 1880 and 1900 was the peak of the medicinal use, where hashish compounds were most commonplace in almost all European countries and the USA. Evidence of misuse at that time was practically non-existent (as opposed to widespread reports in Asia and Africa). Hashish played a significant role in the treatment of pain, migraine, dysmenorrhea , pertussis , asthma and insomnia in Europe and USA towards

9500-426: Was considered smaller, by Lamarck. Also, woodier stems, alternate ramifications of the branches, narrow leaflets, and a villous calyx in the female flowers were characteristics noted by the botanist. In 1843, William O’Shaughnessy, used "Indian hemp ( C. indica )" in a work title. The author claimed that this choice wasn't based on a clear distinction between C. sativa and C. indica , but may have been influenced by

9600-449: Was consumed. In Akkadian , cannabis was known as qunubu ( 𐎯𐎫𐎠𐎭𐏂 ). The word was adopted in to the Hebrew language as qaneh bosem ( קָנֶה בֹּשׂם ). Cannabis is an annual , dioecious , flowering herb . The leaves are palmately compound or digitate , with serrate leaflets . The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet , the number gradually increasing up to

9700-498: Was held in custody after his arrest, he was denied his medication and an appropriate diet for his medical conditions. As a result, he never fully regained the use of his legs, which forced him to rely on a wheelchair for the rest of his life. Prior to the arrest, Larry was in good enough health to work as a trucker and maintain his large rural property. Prosecutors dropped the charges against Larry Harvey citing his terminal cancer. Jason Zucker pleaded guilty and agreed to testify against

9800-558: Was in 1830 by pharmacist and botanist Theodor Friedrich Ludwig Nees von Esenbeck . In 1839, O’Shaughnessy wrote a comprehensive study of Himalayan hemp, which was recognised by the European school of medicine and describes hashish as relief for cramps and causing the disappearance of certain symptoms from afflictions such as rabies, cholera, and tetanus. This led to high hopes in the medical community. In 1840, Louis Aubert-Roche reported his successful use of hashish against pestilence. Also psychiatric experiments with hashish were done at

9900-501: Was in fact almost 100% indica (the opposite strain). Legalization of cannabis in Canada (as of 17 October 2018 ) may help spur private-sector research, especially in terms of diversification of strains. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore,

10000-413: Was set for June 10, 2015. On August 16, 2016, the 9th circuit court issued a ruling in United States vs McIntosh that forbids the prosecution of medical marijuana growers who are following state law as all of the defendants here claimed. On October 16, 2017 Earl A. Hicks, Assistant United States Attorney, filed MOTION FOR REMAND AND/OR STAY OF APPELLATE PROCEEDINGS wherein "The United States submits that

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